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THE 

STUDY  OF   CHILDREN 

AND  THEIR  SCHOOL  TRAINING 

BY 

FRANCIS   WARNER,  M.D.  (Lond.) 

F.R.C.P.,  F.R.C.S.  (Eng.) 

Physician  to  and  Lecturer  at  the  London  Hospital;   Physician  to 

THE  Royal  Albert  Orphanage;  formerly  Physician  to  the 

East  London  Hosi'Ital  for  Children 

Honorary  Member  of  the  Hungarian  Society  of  Public  Health 

AT  Budapest 


THE    MACINHLLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN   &  CO.,  LTD. 
1897 

All  rights  reseri'ed 


Copyright,  1897, 
Bv   THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Nortnooti  ^rfsSB 

J.  S.  CushiiiK  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


This  work  is  addressed  chiefly  to  teachers,  parents, 
and  others  in  daily  contact  with  children  ;  but  contains 
information  that  is  likely  to  interest  those  engaged  in 
directing  education,  philanthropy,  and  other  forms  of 
social  work  as  well  as  those  concerned  with  mental 
science. 

The  book  has  been  written  in  the  hope  of  aiding  an 
advance  in  the  care  of  children,  and  in  the  practice  of 
educational  methods,  by  promoting  a  more  exact  study 
and  classification  of  the  children  to  be  cared  for  and 
trained ;  while  giving  an  account  of  some  conditions  of 
childhood  in  its  many  varieties  as  seen  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  observer  who  records  what  he  sees  as  in 
other  branches  of  physical  science.  For  the  purposes 
of  observation,  a  clear  account  of  the  points  to  look  at, 
what  to  look  for,  and  what  may  be  seen,  normal  or  sub- 
normal, forms  the  alphabet  of  our  subject. 

Child  study  has  of  late  years  been  actively  carried  on 
in  America  and  in  other  countries.  The  psychological 
researches  of  many  American,  and  some  English  and 
German  inquirers,  are  well  known,  and  give  most  inter- 

V 


VI  PREFACE 

esting  records  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  young  chil- 
dren, and  their  modes  of  thought  and  expression.  In 
the  psychological  laboratory  investigation  has  shown 
something  of  the  laws  of  mental  fatigue,  and  the  re- 
action of  the  senses  on  the  brain.  The  application  of 
such  knowledge,  however,  as  well  as  the  means  of 
devising  special  methods  in  training  needs,  as  a  scien- 
tific basis,  a  fuller  understanding  of  the  groups  of  chil- 
dren to  be  educated,  and  the  means  of  discriminating 
and  describing  them.  Considerable  differences  are  to 
be  found  among  observers,  both  in  the  purpose  of  their 
studies,  the  points  of  view  from  which  their  work  is 
undertaken,  and  the  methods  of  procedure  and  descrip- 
tion adopted. 

Problems  in  child  study  may  be  looked  at  from  dif- 
ferent points  of  view ;  as  mainly  psychological,  or  as 
mainly  physical  questions,  with  the  determination  to 
follow  the  methods  of  observation,  and  the  modes  of 
description  used  in  the  conduct  of  biological  study  and 
the  physical  sciences  ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  important 
to  describe  phenomena  by  the  use  of  terms  indicating 
what  we  see  and  such  as  are  employed  in  physical  in- 
vestigation. I  think  the  best  results  will  be  obtained 
by  keeping  the  two  methods  distinct,  and  suggest  that 
in  the  scientific  (physical)  study  of  children  in  their 
modes  of  brain-action,  and  bodily  conditions,  we  should 
describe  what  we  see,  and  employ  no  terms  implying 
results  of  consciousness  and  states  of  feeling.      Child 


I'RKIACE  vii 

Study  conducted  by  any  method  is  advantageous  as 
directing  attention  to  the  individual  child  ;  it  increases 
knowledge  of  child  life,  and  tends  to  cultivate  a  fellow- 
feeling  with  the  child  as  an  object  of  interest. 

I  shall  here  use  points  for  observation  which  I  began 
to  study  twenty  years  ago,  indicating  brain-power  and 
mental  expression,  such  as  render  it  possible  to  give 
descriptions  of  children,  as  of  other  living  things,  by 
describing  facts  seen.  The  study  of  such  observations 
shows  many  new  relations  among  growth,  movement, 
and  mental  power.  The  principles  used  in  biological 
•study  and  natural  history  are  here  applied  to  child 
^itudy. 

In  1888  a  committee  was  formed  by  the  British 
Medical  Association  to  study  school  children  as  to  their 
mental  and  physical  status,  and  in  conjunction  with 
medical  men  on  that  committee,  and  others,  I  was 
enabled  to  examine  individually  100,000  children  upon 
a  fixed  plan,  taking  a  written  description  on  a  schedule 
for  each  child  in  any  one  point  subnormal,  or  reported 
by  the  teacher  as  dull  or  backward. 

Groups  of  boys  and  girls  can  be  studied  when  their 
classification  is  arranged  on  a  basis  of  points  observed 
in  individual  children.  Observation  shows  the  child's 
strong  points  which  should  be  cultivated,  as  well  as  his 
weak  ones  which  must  be  combated.  The  interaction 
of  classmates  on  one  another  may  be  observed  by  the 
teacher  who  observes  the  individual  child  under  varied 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


conditions.  The  importance  of  what  have  been  called 
eye-mindedness  and  ear-mindedness,  as  well  as  action 
of  the  hand  controlled  through  the  eye,  becomes 
emphasised  to  the  mind  of  the  observer. 

Some  generalisations,  in  the  form  of  Propositions 
concerning  Childhood,  are  given  in  the  last  chapter ;  it 
seems  possible  to  attain  a  working  consensus  in  inter- 
preting much  that  we  see  for  the  practical  purposes  of 
education  and  the  care  of  children.  When  the  groups 
of  children  to  be  cared  for  are  clearly  discriminated,  the 
educational  methods  needed  for  each  can  be  more 
readily  worked  out. 

Studies   in    psychology   often    emphasise   the    great 

mental  differences  among  children  ;  observation  of  the 

children  themselves  shows  points  of  resemblance  and 

difference,  normal  and  subnormal,  by  which  they  may 

be  grouped  and  compared. 

F.  W. 

5  Prince  of  Wales  Terrace, 
Kensington,  W.  London. 


NOTE   OF   EXPLANATION 

In  case  the  system  of  grading  pupils  by  Standards  in  use  in  the 
London  schools  in  which  Dr.  Warner  made  his  examinations  is  not 
perfectly  familiar  to  all  his  readers,  it  should  be  stated  that  bright 
children  at  six  years  of  age  should  be  found  in  Standard  I. ;  at  seven 
in  Standard  II.  ;  at  eight  in  Standard  III.  ;  at  nine  or  ten  in  Stand- 
ard IV.  or  V. ;  at  eleven  or  twelve  in  Standard  VI.  or  VII.  Possibly 
the  majority  of  children  will  be  from  three  to  six  months  behind 
this  estimate. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   I 

FACE 

Introductory i 

The  purposes  of  education.  The  children  to  be  educated. 
Child  study.  Classification  in  the  schoolroom.  Observation  gives 
power.  Training  to  observe.  Observing  and  describing  a  flower. 
A  kitten  as  a  live  object.  Parts  of  the  object  observed;  the  body, 
movements.  Troublesome  children.  Training  to  look,  observe, 
and  describe.  Mind  and  body.  A  nervous  child,  mental  confu- 
sion. Physical  facts  observed.  Varieties  of  childhood.  Classifi- 
cation of  children  as  to  their  difficult  points;  as  to  their  make. 
Report  on  a  school.  Visit  to  a  high  school;  the  boys  seen;  nerve- 
signs. 

Illustrative  cases. 


CHAPTER   II 

The  Body  of  the  Chh.d:  its  Construction  and  Growth        .       i6 

The  infant,  weight  and  measurements.  The  head  and  the  nose. 
Head  at  nine  months.  Teething;  second  teeth.  Table  I,  show- 
ing periods  of  dentition.  The  head  at  school  age.  The  lower  jaw. 
The  eyes  and  their  orbits.  The  face,  its  muscles,  and  muscles  of 
expression  and  of  mastication.  Blushing.  Openings  for  eyes.  The 
nose;  its  importance  in  breathing.  Mouth  breathing;  its  harm. 
External  ears.  The  trunk;  spine  and  chest.  The  arm,  forearm, 
wrist,  and  hand.  Measuring  the  chest.  Girl  outgrows  the  boy 
about  the  thirteenth  year.  Weighing  and  measuring.  Growth 
and  development.  Signs  of  good  nutrition.  Eyes  out  of  focus. 
Flat  eyes  (hypermetropia).  I-ong  eyes;  short-sighted.  Squint- 
ing.    Testing  sight;    point  of  near  vision.     Testing  hearing. 

Tables. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    III 

PAGE 

The  Brain  :  its  Development  and  Evolution    ....      34 

Description  of  the  brain.  Nerve-cells;  nerve-fibres,  nerve-force, 
and  nerve-currents.  Movement  resulting  from  brain-action.  Anal- 
ogy to  a  galvanic  cell.  Nerve-fibres  passing  up  to  the  brain,  and 
others  passing  from  it  to  the  muscles.  Diagram  of  brain,  nerves, 
and  muscles.  Nerve-centres  or  parts  of  brain  act  separately. 
Every  movement  is  due  to  action  of  a  nerve-centre.  A  series  of 
movements  indicates  a  series  of  nerve-centres  acting,  controlled 
through  the  senses.  Stimulation  producing  movement.  All 
expression  of  the  action  of  mind  is  by  movement.  Expression  of 
emotions.  A  child  in  sleep.  Brain-action  requires  food  and  stim- 
ulation through  the  senses.  Brain-action  observed  in  movements 
of  infant.  Spontaneous  movements  in  new-born  infant;  also  in 
young  animals  and  seedling  plants.  Brain-centres  act  separately  in 
infant.  Movements  when  a  month  old :  at  three  months,  some 
control  through  the  senses.  Associated  movements  of  the  hands. 
At  five  months,  movement  regulated  through  eye  and  ear.  At 
three  years,  signs  of  mental  action  and  memory.  A  case.  Infan- 
tile brain-action  evolves  as  mental  expression.  Action  in  brain 
corresponding  to  regulated  movements.  The  dawn  of  mental 
faculty.  Case,  action  adapted  by  circumstances  at  three  years. 
Kind  of  movement  seen  in  the  infant. 

CHAPTER   IV 

Observing  the  Child  :   what  to  look  at  and  what  to  look 

FOR 52 

Studying  children:  observing  in  place  of  questioning  the  child. 
Examples.  Case:  a  well-made  boy,  exhausted.  How  to  observe. 
Points  to  look  for;  development,  nerve-signs,  nutrition.  Schedule 
for  recording  observations.  Fix  your  ideas  of  the  normal  type. 
The  head:  points  for  observation;  common  defects;  measure- 
ments. Study  good  statuary.  The  face  :  types.  Separate  features. 
Nose.     Palate.     Ears.     Growth. 

Nerve-signs.  General  balance.  Expression  in  the  face,  facial 
zones.  Analysing  a  face.  Eye-movements;  mus9les  of  the  eye, 
the  pupil.  Head,  postures  and  movements.  Hand-balance  as  an 
index  of  the  brain.     The  normal  straight  hand  posture. 


CONTENTS  xi 


CHAPTER   V 

/  PAGE 

Principles  of  the  Methods  uk  observing  and  describing  Chil- 
dren       69 

Methods  of  studying  chiklren.  Experience  gained  in  examining 
a  hundred  thousand  chiMren  in  schools.  Facts  to  observe  and 
describe.  Appearance  of  the  body  and  expression.  Writings  of 
Bell  and  Lavater.  Physiognomy  and  expression  do  not  always 
correspond.  Movements  and  attitudes  as  signs  of  brain-action. 
A  farmer's  descriptions.     Principles  of  observation. 

The  child  an  object  in  nature.  Objective  study;  psychological 
study.  Doctor's  nietliod  of  observing.  Training  to  observe  :  look 
at  types  of  perfection  in  nature  and  art.  The  head  and  face.  Sir 
Charles  Bell  on  expression.  Signs  of  good  nutrition  of  body  and*l 
brain.  Malnutrition  in  plants.  History  of  research  as  to  nerve-  ' 
signs.  Venus  and  Diana.  Nervous  hand-posture.  Energetic 
hand,  the  two  contrasted.  Hand-postures  express  mental  state. 
Drooping  the  thumb.  Hand  in  rest;  feeble  hand-posture.  Hand 
in  fright.  Convulsive  hand.  The  Cain  and  Xiobe  at  Florence. 
Postures  observed  in  parts  that  are  free,  as  face  and  hand.  Obser- 
vation of  movements;  fingers,  large  parts.  Brain-centres  in  action 
corresponding.  A  long-continued,  similar  series  of  acts  fatigues. 
Occupations  involving  movements  of  small  parts.  Symmetry  of 
balance  and  movement.  Antithesis  of  posture.  Principles  for 
classification  of  movements.  Spontaneous  and  stimulated  move- 
ment\  reflex  movement.  Series  of  movements;  uniform,  spread- 
ing area,  climinishing  area,  or  as  adapted  by  circumstance.  Try 
to  improve  the  child's  expression. 

CHAPTER   VI 

Points  for  Observaiton,  indicvflng  Faults  in  Body  or  Brain- 
action,  or  a  Status  below  the  Normal  ...      97 

Description  of  card  for  recording  defects.  Cranium :  large, 
small,  bossed,  forehead  defective,  frontal  ridge.  External  ear. 
Eyelids.  Palate,  narrow,  V-shaped,  arched,  cleft.  Nose.  Growth 
small.  Other  defects  in  development :  face  small;  features  plain; 
hands  blue;  mouth  small;  eye-openings  small.  .Vbnormal  nerve- 
signs.      General    balance.      Expression.      Frontals.      Corrugation. 


Xll  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Fulness  under  eyes.  Eye-movements.  Head-balance.  Hand- 
balance  weak,  nervous.  Finger  twitches.  Lordosis.  Other  abnor- 
mal nerve-signs.  Deafness.  Grinning.  Over-mobility.  Response 
faulty.  \  Speech;   stammering.     Two  cases  of  stammering. 

CHAPTER  VII 

Examination  of  Mental  Ability  and  the  Faults  that  !\iay  be 

observed 119 

Examination  by  speaking,  reading,  talking.  Expression  in 
words.  Repetition  of  the  question  :  imitation  and  delayed  mental 
action.     Limited  vocabulary :  articulation;  spacing  words.     Social  1' 

sense.  Memory.  Arithmetic.  Comparison  of .  size  and  form. 
Imitation  of  movements  :  finger  exercises  for  imitation.  Analogous 
modes  of  movement  and  mental  action.  Slow  action.  Delayed 
expression  :  a  case.  Introspection,  it  is  exhausting.  Other  tests 
of  brain-power.  Counting  money  :  tests  by  weight.  Cases. 
Time  by  clock  and  watch.  Principles  involved  in  mental  tests. 
Imitation  from  teacher.  Defective  memory.  Epitome  of  some 
mental  tests :  the  principles  concerned.  Faults  leading  to  mental 
defects.     Silly  children. 

CHAPTER   VIII 
Some  General  Conditions  in  Children  described    .        .        .137 
Consciousness   expressed   in    action.      Sleep,  its   signs:    tooth- 
grinding.     Rest  and  subsequent  activity.      Children  are  not  natu- 
rally motionless.      Fidgety  chjldren  ;     peevishness.       Inattentii)n.         ^  ') 
Fatigue;   it  should  not  proceed  to  exhaustion.     An  exhausted  boy, 
very  dull.     Irritability.     A  girl  tired  in  home  life.     All  expression 
of  mental  states  is  by  movement.     Sleep  contrasted  with  a  storm 
of  passion.     Descriptions  of  C.  Bell  and  A.  Bain.     Expression  of 
joy  and  laughter.     Scientific  description.     Mental  excitement :   a 
case.     Headaches  in  children.     A  nervous  girl  with  headaches. 

CHAPTER   IX 

Types  of  Childhood;    and  Groups   of  Children  below  the 

Normal 154 

Source  of  experience  and  evidence.  Report  on  a  hundred 
thousand  school  children.    Normal  children.    Schedule:  a  normal 


CONTENTS  xiii 


PAGE 


child.  Nervous  children;  cartl  showing  defects,  schedule  giving 
account  of  the  same  case.  Dull  and  backwartl  children:  coinci- 
dent defects.  Schedule  of  dull  boy.  .Schedule  of  boy  normal  but 
dull.  A  small  and  backward  boy.  A  boy  overworked.  A  small 
girl,  exhausted  and  too  high  in  school.  A  backward  girl,  head 
small,  eye-movements  faulty.  IJoy  bright  at  arithmetic,  dull  at 
Euclid.  Children  mentally  exceptional.  "  A  mural  imbecile." 
Children  "feebly  gifted  mentally."  Cases.  Deafness  causing 
mental  dulness.  Cases.  Children  presenting  defects  in  develop- 
ment:  coincident  defects.  Children  with  abnormal  nerve-signs; 
their  associated  defects.  Delicate  children;  delicacy  due  to  in- 
heritance. Boys  and  girls.  Case.  Dull  and  delicate  children 
with  defective  development  and  nerve-signs.  Schedule  describing 
a  case.  Epileptics  and  children  with  history  of  fits  during  school- 
life.  Cases.  Children  crippled,  maimed,  paralysed,  or  deformed. 
Children  who  appear  to  require  special  care  and  training. 

CHAPTER   X 

Adolescence igg 

Comparison  of  younger  and  ul.lcr  groups  of  children.  With 
advance  of  development  spontaneous  movement  lessens;  less 
childishness.  Advance  of  social  sense,  more  accuracy;  demand 
for  refepect.  Professor  Key's  ol>servations  on  periods  of  growth; 
their  significance.  Normal  and  sub-normal  children.  Hard  work 
at  adolescence.  Older  boys;  their  conditions  and  training.  The 
older  girls  injchool.     Delicate  girls.     Anremia.     Hysteria. 

CHAPTER   XI 

The  Care  of  Children  and  their  Training      ....     198 

Training  should  be  founded  on  knowledge  of  the  children. 
Classification  of  pupils:  age-basis;  grouping  children  imitative 
and  nervous.  Brain-training  gives  strength.  Physical  training; 
fatigue  to  be  avoided;  spontaneity  to  be  trained.  Kindergarten. 
Training  the  attention.  Inattention  and  fidgetiness.  Phvsical 
exercises  :  various  kinds,  their  employment.  Exercises  in  brain- 
training.  Imitation:  uniform  repetition.  Increasing  number  of 
parts  moving :   small  parts  and  larger  parts  moved.     Finger-exer- 


xiv  CONTExMTS 

PAGE 

cises.  Eye-movements.  Sense  of  weight.  How  to  deal  with 
frowning  and  facial  expression.  Mental  states :  untruthfulness. 
Nervous  children.  Fixed  mental  impressions.  Absent-minded- 
ness. Training  delicate  and  nervous  children;  removal  of  nerve- 
signs,  usefulness  of  a  description  of  the  child.  Precocious  chil- 
dren. Control  and  discipline  through  eye  and  ear.  Teaching 
description  of  natural  objects.  Description  in  terms  implying 
what  is  seen. 


CHAPTER   Xn 

Hygiene  and  Health  Management  during  Spjeot-UFE 

Health  management  guided  by  observation.  Advice  to  parents 
through  children.  Health  culture  and  early  detection  of  its  fail- 
ure, or  of  disease.  Cleanliness.  Air  breathed,  at  home  and  in 
school;  ventilation.  Looicing  at  pupils  arriving  in  school.  Com- 
mon illnesses.  Food  :  milk,  water,  bread,  meat.  Feeding  infants : 
flour  food  leads  to  rickets.  Clothing.  Ophthalmia.  Ulcer  on  the 
eye.  Summer  diarrhoea.  Chicken-pox.  Measles.  Scarlet  fever. 
Diphtheria.  Taking  the  temperature  :  clinical  thermometer.  Con- 
tagion.    Disinfection.     Chorea.     Epilepsy.     Rickets. 

Lighting  the  room.  Cloak-room  and  lavatories.  Sight  and  hear- 
ing. Delicate  children.  Mental  hygiene  as  a  science.  Laws  of 
mental  fatigue. 


CHAPTER   XHI 

Propositions  concerning  Childhood 238 

Proposition  L  The  main  classes  of  defect  among  school 
children  include  a  larger  proportion  of  boys  than  girls. 

Proposition  IL  The  main  classes  of  defect  among  school 
children  are  much  associated  in  the  groups  of  cases.  Such  asso- 
ciations vary  with  sex,  age,  and  environment. 

Proposition  in.  Children  with  developmental  defects  often 
present  also  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and  are  delicate  and  dull. 

Proposition  IV.  Children  with  indications  of  brain-disorderli- 
ness  —  that  is,  abnormal  nerve-signs  —  are  often  dull  pupils. 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

Proposition  V.  Dull  pupils  are  often  delicate  with  indications 
of  hraiii-disordLrliiicss;    that  is,  ahnornial  nerve-signs. 

Proposition  VI.  Girls  with  developmental  defect  or  hrain- 
disordcrliness  are  more  apt  to  receive  harm  and  less  good  from 
their  environment  than  boys. 

Proposition  VII.  The  eflects  of  good  physical  training  in 
school  arc  to  diniiiiish  the  number  of  cases  with  signs  (jf  brain- 
disordcrliness  and  the  nuiul)er  of  dull  children. 

Tables  showing  the  results  of  the  examination  of  100,000 
children. 

INDEX 251 


\ 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  muscles  of  expression  in  the  face.  After  Sir  Charles  Bell  .  21 
The  spine,  chest,  and  bones  of  the  upper  extremity.     After  Sir 

Charles  Bell 23 

Bones  of  the  forearm  :   the  radius  and  ulna.     After  Sir  Charles 

Bell 24 

Diagrammatic  representation   of   the   brain   and   its   nerves   in 

connection  with  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the  muscles  ...  37 

5.  Hand  in  straight  balance  ........  68 

6.  Hand  in  nervous  balance  ........  80 

Diana.     British  Museum  ........  81 

Hand  in  energetic  balance          .......  82 

9.     Hand  in  straight  balance  with  thumb  drooped  ....  83 

10.     Hand  in  balance  of  rest    ........  84 

Hand  in  fright 85 

12.  Convulsive  hand          .........  85 

13.  Cain.     Museum,  Florence           .......  86 

14.  Face:   showing  complete  paralysis  on  the  right  side  .          .          .  108 

15.  Face:    showing  partial  paralysis  of  the  right  side  from  brain 

disease   ...........  109 

16.  Face:  showing  partial  paralysis  on  the  left  side          .         .         .  no 

17.  Hand  in  feeble  balance      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .111 

18.  Imbecile,  smiling        .  .  .  .         .         .         .         .  .112 

19.  The  same :  quiescent  and  expressionless    .         .         .         .         -US 


LIST    OF   TABLES 

TABLE  *  PAGE 

I.     Showing  periods  of  dentition         *:  .         .  .  .18 

II.     Showing   average   hciglits  and   weights   of  children.     After 

Dr.  Bowditch 31 

III.  Showing  the  annual  increase  in  height  and  weight  of  children 

at  ages  stated      ........ 

IV.  Showing  measurements  of  chest  girth    in    chihlrcn.     Afte 

Dr.  Roberts        ........ 

V.     Showing  the  average  weight  of  the  brain  of  children  at  age 

periods.     yVfter  Dr.  Boyd   .......       33 

VI.     Cases  of  children  with  headaches,  arranged  according  to  age,      151 

VII.  Number  of  children  with  each  class  of  defect,  and  the  per- 
centage on  the  numbers  seen.  Also  showing,  for  each 
class,  the  proportion  of  boys  and  girls  respectively.  Based 
on  fifty  thousand  children  seen  by  author   ....     249 

VIII.  Showing  for  each  class  of  defect  the  percentage  of  cases  asso- 
ciated with  another  class  of  defect  as  named.  .Vrranged 
in  age-groups  for  boys  and  girls  respectively.  Dealing 
with  some  children,  as  Table  VII 250 


LIST    OF   CASES 

CASE  PAGE 

1.  Bright  boy,  dull  at  Latin.     Eyes  moved  badly   ....  2 

2.  Mental  confusion;    corrected  by  observing  its  signs    ...  3 

3.  Child  bright   at  school,  but   fractious   at   home,   with   signs  of 

fatigue   ...........  4 

4.  Boy  with  cleft  lip  and  heart  defect;   mentally  dull      ...  4 

5.  Arithmetical  mistake;   hand  not  guided  by  eyes         ...  8 

6.  A  well-made  boy,  action  good,  but  dull  mentally        ...  9 

7.  Mental  confusion,  accompanying  wandering  eyes  and  restless 

movements     ..........  10 

8.  A  big,  dull  boy;   developmental  defects  with  nerve-signs  .         .  13 

9.  A  small,  fidgety,  playful  boy.     Rickets 14 

10.  A  boy  exhausted  but  bright;   signs  of  fatigue    ....  14 

11.  A  tired,  dull,  fidgety  boy 14 

12.  Delayed  expression  or  thought,  seen  in  action  of  child  at  three 

years  old         ..........  46 

13.  Action  adapted  by  circumstances,  in  a  child  under  three  years  .  50 

14.  A  well-made  boy,  but  exhausted  and  overworked       •         •         •  55 

1 5.  Boy  who  stammers  :  muscular  spasm  commences  in  the  forehead,  117 

16.  Boy  who   stammers:    muscular   spasm    commences   about    the 

mouth.     An  intelligent  boy.     Rickets    .         .         .         .         •  n? 

17.  Delayed  expression  of  an  impression  produced,  in  a  child  four 

years  old         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -125 

18.  A  dumb  boy,  who  showed  acquired  experience  as  to  temperature,  129 

19.  A  very  dull  boy:  short-sighted  and  deaf.     He  could  compare 

weights.         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .129 

20.  A  boy,  exhausted  and  very  dull           ......  144 

21.  A  girl,  tired  in  home  life    ........  146 

22.  A  boy,  showing  signs  of  mental  excitement        .         .         .         •  151 

23.  Headaches  in  a  nervous  child;    previous  chorea          .          .          .  153 

24.  Schedule  describing  a  normal  child    .         .         .         .         .         •  '57 

25.  A  nervous  child  described  in  schedule;    also  a  card,  describing 

the  defects  in  the  same  case  .         .'         .         .         .         .         .160 


LIST  OF  CASES 


XIX 


CASK 

26.  Schedule :   a  dull  and  backward  boy,  defects  in  make  and  in 

nerve-signs     .  ...... 

27.  Schedule:   a  normal  !)iiy,  hut  dull       .... 

28.  A  small  boy,  very  backward 

29.  A  i)oy  overworked,  not  deficient;    inert  and  solitary  . 

30.  A  small  girl,  exhausted  and  placed  too  high  in  school 

31.  A  backward  girl;   head  small,  eye-movements  faulty 

32.  A  boy  bright  at  arithmetic,  dull  at  Euclid;   did  not  look  at  the 

blackboard     

33.  A  clever  boy;   a  thief  and  incendiary 

34.  A  clever  girl;   character  bad,  criminal  inlieritance 

35.  An  uncontrollable  boy;   mother  insane  (epilepsy?) 

36.  Schedule:  describing  a  child  feebly  gifted  mentally 

37.  A  girl  mentally  feeble,  without  speech,  but  with  some  social  and 

moral  sense    ..... 

38.  A  deaf  boy  without  speech,  but  educable  . 

39.  A  boy  with  increasing  deafness,  short-sight,  and  accompanying 

mental  dulness 

40.  Schedule,   describing    a    delicate,   small-headed,    fidgety   girl; 

mentally  bright,  headaches,  needs  spectacles 

41.  Schedule,  describing  a  boy  delicate  and  dull,  with  defect   of 

development  and  nerve-signs.      He  needs  special  care  and 
training.         ........ 

42.  Girl:  epileptic  fits  at  home,  none  in  school;   very  dull 

43.  Boy:  epileptic  fits  in  school,  deficient  mental  power;    a 

boy 

44.  Boy:  fits  at  home  and  in  school;   a  clever  boy  and  good 

45.  Boy:  fits  at  home  and  in  school;   intelligent 

46.  Girl :  mentally  defective  and  epileptic 

47.  Frowning,  quieted  by  interesting  work 

48.  Headache,  leading  to  confused  mental  action    . 

49.  Illusions  in  a  boy,  leading  to  untrue  statements 

50.  A  girl  with  chorea  or  St.  Vitus's  dance 


good 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


CHAPTER   I  ^ 

Introductory 

An  educational  system  has  been  introduced,  and 
made  available  for  all  classes,  in  order  that  young 
people  may  grow  up  with  their  faculties  well  devel- 
oped, fitting  them  to  become  useful  men  and  women 
in  their  future  social  life.  But,  while  looking  at  the 
scope  and  the  public  usefulness  of  a  system  of  edu- 
cation, we  must  remember  that  children  differ  greatly 
in  health  and  strength  and  in  mental  faculty ;  educa- 
tion should  therefore  be  adapted  to  the  special  needs 
of  the  individuals.  Children  of  school  age,  i.e.  from 
throe  to  fourteen  years,  form  about  one-fourth  part  of 
the  population.  We  shall  see  that  there  are  many 
classes  and  varieties  of  children,  whose  needs  must 
be  studied ;  while  the  bodily  strength  and  mental 
faculty  of  an  individual  will  be  shown  to  vary  at  dif- 
ferent age-periods,  and  according  to  the  environment. 
Hence,  child  study  must  be  a  matter  of  priuKiry  interest 

B  I 


2  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

to  the  teacher  and  others  engaged  in  the  care  of 
children,  as  affording  a  basis  for  the  methods  of  edu- 
cation ;  giving  a  source  of  perpetual  interest  to  work 
in  school,  an  interest  in  the  individual  child,  and  a 
reasonable  means  of  working  out,  in  practice,  the 
best  that  can  be  done  with  the  child  in  various 
phases  of  life.  Without  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
children  the  teacher  may  have  difficulty  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  peculiar  pupil. 

Case  I.  A  boy,  eight  years  of  age,  in  a  prepara- 
tory school,  was  said  to  be  so  dull  at  learning  Latin, 
that  it  was  thought  impossible  to  continue  the  at- 
tempt to  teach  him.  He  was  healthy  and  well  made ; 
he  showed  no  signs  of  mental  defect,  and  was,  other- 
wise, quick  and  bright.  He  had  learned  to  read  well 
and  read  story-books  for  pleasure.  I  noticed  that, 
in  reading,  he  followed  the  words  on  the  printed  line 
by  moving  his  head,  not  moving  his  eyes  in  their 
orbits ;  this  did  well  enough  for  story-reading,  when 
he  skipped  much  of  the  page.  Moving  the  head,  in 
place  of  turning  the  eyes,  did  not  admit  of  sufficient 
accuracy  for  studying  Latin.  Some  attention  to  eye- 
drill  soon  removed  all  the  difficulty  complained  of, 
and  the  boy  made  good  progress.  This  cause  of 
mental  dulness  will  be  referred  to  again;  the  case 
serves  to  illustrate  the  usefulness  to  teachers  of  per- 
sonal observation. 

Children   in  a  school  class    usually  vary ;    each    has 


INTRODUCrORY  3 

his  own  peculiarities.  A  rough  classification  may  be 
made  of  the  temperament,  disposition,  and  mental 
characteristics  of  each,  and  still  there  remain  itulivid- 
ual  peculiarities,  which  should  be  recognised  as  a 
guide  to  training.  Some  children  are  active  in  tem- 
perament, kindly  in  disposition,  and  quite  up  to  average 
for  their  age  in  mental  ability ;  an  individual  of  that 
class  may  give  trouble  by  outbursts  of  passion  and 
periods  of  mental  confusion ;  such  pupils  will  need 
careful  consideration  and  management. 

Case  2.  A  girl  was  doing  a  sum,  simplifying  a 
compound  fraction  quietly  and  correctly,  line  by  line : 
then  the  forehead  puckered  and  the  eyebrows  were 
knit  together,  while  the  face  flushed  and  the  angles 
of  the  mouth  became  depressed ;  at  the  same  time, 
the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  which  held  the  pen, 
twitched,  and  she  wrote  114—  16  =  24.     Writing  quickly 

114  .... 

on    a    piece  of    paper        ^    and    puttmg  it  before    her 

was  immediately  followed  by  the  face  clearing,  while 
the  figure  98  was  at  once  filled  in ;  the  work  was 
continued  without  a  word  said ;  thus  a  storm  was 
prevented  by  rapid  observation  of  the  signs  accom- 
panying mental  confusion. 

Observation  and  study  of  children  as  to  their  mental 
status  will  add  power  to  the  position  of  the  teacher, 
to  be  exercised  for  the  benefit  of  children.  To  ob- 
serve and    to    think    does  not   suffice  to  complete    the 


4  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

method  of  child  study  ;  we  should  be  able  to  describe 
in  words  what  we  see,  both  as  an  aid  to  accurate 
thinking,  and  as  a  means  of  expressing  the  grounds 
of  an  opinion,  formed  as  to  the  status  of  the  child 
and  the  effects  of  training.  Accuracy  in  thus  form- 
ing an  opinion  may  do  much  to  save  friction  between 
the  school  and  the  parent,  and  to  establish  a  good 
understanding. 

Case  3.  A  boy  was  sent  to  Kindergarten  ;  on  return- 
ing home  at  m.idday,  it  was  always  difficult  to  make  him 
take  his  dinner ;  he  talked  much,  turned  away  from  his 
food,  was  cross,  nothing  was  pleasing  to  him ;  he  was 
restless  and  looked  full  under  the  eyes ;  at  night  he 
talked  in  his  sleep,  in  the  morning  he  was  tired  and  did 
not  want  to  get  up.  He  was  a  healthy,  well-made  child. 
In  school  he  was  reported  as  bright  and  eager,  did  as 
he  was  told,  liked  the  games,  and  did  not  seem  tired. 
The  teacher  saw  him  bright  and  happy,  when  occupied 
and  under  the  stimulus  of  school  and  companions ;  the 
parents  saw  him  after  such  stimulus  was  removed. 
Each  account  of  the  child  was  true ;  they  were  taken 
under  different  circumstances. 

Case  4.  A  boy  attending  an  elementary  school  was 
brought  to  me  by  his  mother,  because  he  was  trouble- 
some, did  not  do  his  work,  and  was  always  in  disgrace 
and  punishment,  and  she  did  not  know  what  to  do  with 
him.  I  observed  at  once  that  he  had  a  cleft  upper  lip, 
which    had    been    closed   by  a    surgeon,   but    the    scar 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

remained.  Knowing  the  frequency  of  several  defects 
in  the  same  child,  and  that  the  brain  in  such  cases  is 
often,  but  not  always,  badly  made,  I  examined  him  with 
care.  The  boy  had  a  defect  of  his  heart,  and  his  brain 
was  ill-developed.  Advice  was  given  that  he  should 
continue  at  school,  and  that  the  teacher  should  be 
informed  as  to  his  condition,  that  he  might  be  kindly 
treated,  and  not  expected  to  pass  examinations.  This 
boy  has  a  right  to  the  benefits  of  education  ;  they  afford 
the  best  chance  of  his  improvement,  and  of  preventing 
him  from  becoming  a  failure  in  life.  Such  cases  are 
common. 

As  to  method  of  observation  and  study,  I  have 
to  explain,  as  shortly  and  clearly  as  possible,  how  you 
can  observe  children  for  yourselves,  and  think  about 
your  observations  with  advantage.  The  observations 
you  make  for  yourselves  will  always  be  of  use  to  you ; 
in  making  observations  we  can  all  agree  ;  the  inferences 
drawn  therefrom  may  differ  according  to  the  aspects  in 
which  they  are  considered,  and  the  special  experience 
brought  to  bear.  The  points  to  be  defined  for  observa- 
tion are  grounded  upon  my  personal  observation  of 
100,000  children  who  were  seen  individually.  Some 
principles  which  underlie  accurate  observation  and 
description  will  be  explained,  to  help  you  in  planning 
what  you  will  do  and  what  to  look  at. 

A  certain  amount  of  training  is  necessary  to  make 
a  good  observer ;   the  teacher  who  has  to  give  object 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


lessons  or  teach  natural  history  needs  not  only  to  be 
an  accurate  observer  himself,  but  also  to  be  capable  of 
training  children  to  observe,  i.e.  to  see  and  to  think 
about  what  they  see.  Looking  at  a  buttercup  flower, 
you  may  name  it  and  say  where  it  grows ;  that  it  is  of 
no  particular  use  to  the  farmer,  but  is  a  very  pretty 
flower ;  that  it  is  a  yellow  flower  and  without  scent. 
Then  you  will  show  the  parts  of  the  flower,  the  five  parts 
that  are  coloured,  showing  that  they  are  separate  from 
one  another,  and  all  alike  in  size  and  in  form.  So  you 
proceed  to  look  at  all  the  parts  of  the  flower,  their  num- 
ber, size,  form,  the  proportions  of  the  parts,  and  you 
compare  them.  Occasionally  you  will  find  a  flower  in 
which  the  coloured  parts  (petals)  are  not  all  of  the 
same  size,  and  with  some  variation  of  colour ;  points  a 
little  different  from  the  usual  and  below  the  normal. 

Now  look  at  a  kitten  :  it  may  be  more  difficult  to 
demonstrate  than  the  flower,  because  it  is  alive  and  full 
of  movement ;  but  more  interesting,  because  it  does 
move,  and  shows  some  instinct  or  intelligence.  You 
proceed,  as  with  the  flower,  to  look  at  its  body,  each 
limb  and  its  parts,  the  ears  and  the  tail,  the  claws,  etc. 
We  look  at  each  part  of  the  kitten.  Its  movements  are 
more  interesting  points  :  movement  indicates  its  play- 
fulness, the  instinct,  and  something  like  intelligence  in 
the  cat:  movements  tell  you  more  of  the  disposition 
and  character  of  the  cat  than  its  colour,  the  length  of 
its  hair,  and  its  ears  and   tail.     In    studying   a   living 


INTRODUCrORY 


thing  we  observe  its  parts,  and  in  a  living  animal  we 
observe  movements  in  its  parts :  we  must  study  the 
child  in  the  same  way.^  I  shall  call  your  attention  to 
the  body  of  the  child,  its  height,  weight,  and  proportions 
as  a  whole,  and  to  the  physiognomy  or  proportioning  of 
the  head  and  separate  features  and  parts. 

Over  and  above  the  observation  of  the  body,  as  a 
still  object,  you  must  look  at  the  movements  of  its  parts, 
which  are  the  direct  outcome  of  action  in  the  brain  and 
nerve-system  ;  thus  you  may  study  growth  of  body  and 
action  of  brain,  as  you  look  at  the  child  and  think  about 
ills  mental  action  and  the  interaction  of  the  mind  and 
body.  In  studying  a  child,  to  ascertain  all  you  can 
c'.bout  his  mental  disposition,  you  must  look  at  him  for 
the  purpose  of  seeing  all  possible  signs  of  his  brain 
action,  and  how  it  is  controlled  and  affected  by  circum- 
stances :  by  studying  individual  pupils  continuously  you 
will  acquire  valuable  experience  and  be  able  to  form 
generalisations  from  your  observations,  as  a  basis  of 
mental  study.  When  you  have  learnt  to  recognise  and 
describe  the  points,  seen  in  the  well-developed  but  ner- 
vous child,  examples  will  remain  in  your  memory,  and 
in  your  note-book,  and  you  will  find  that  they  are  usu- 
ally quick  in  mental  action  ;  affectionate,  but  some- 
times passionate,  gregarious  in  social  habit,  and  give 
difficulty  in  school   on  account   of   their  over-mobility, 

1  See  "  Anatomy  of  Movement :  A  Treatise  on  the  Action  of  Nerve- 
Centres  and  Modes  of  Growth,"  by  the  author.     The  Macmillan  Company. 


8  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

excitability,  fidgetiness,  and  liability  to  fatigue  and  head- 
aches. These  facts  will  stimulate  your  interest  in  these 
"troublesome  children  "  and  show  the  origin  of  some  of 
their  faults.  I  have  seen  such  children  in  school  sit 
together  at  the  back-desks  of  the  classroom,  where  their 
quick  wits  enabled  them  to  complete  their  sums  or  exer- 
cise quickly ;  while  their  spontaneous  mobility  predis- 
posed them  to  be  the  playful,  talkative,  laughing  pupils 
of  the  class.  I  shall  put  before  you  the  points,  in 
detail,  which  you  may  see  and  describe  in  the  child. 

Besides  describing  what  you  see  in  the  child,  I  think 
you  will  gain  much  by  giving  a  general  description  in 
your  own  words,  indicating  the  mental  action  you  may 
observe  in  the  pupil's  words  and  work,  and  compare 
this  with  points  seen  in  the  body  and  action  of  the  child. 

Case  5.  I  have  seen  a  well-built,  intelligent  child, 
who  was  interested  in  and  quick  at  arithmetic,  make  an 
absurd  mistake.  The  sum  was  to  reduce  six  million 
inches  to  miles,  yards  and  feet :  it  was  written  thus  : 

12 1 6,000,000  inches 
3  1 500  feet 

i66"2      yards  Aus.   166  yd.  2  ft. 

The  purely  mental  work  is  correct ;  the  first  line 
was  drawn  wrongly,  the  eye  did  not  correctly  guide 
the  hand.  It  was,  doubtless,  extremely  careless  of  the 
child ;  but  if  you  scold  her,  she  will  wriggle  and  flush 
and  look  like  crying  ;  that  does  but  little  good.  Rather 
look  at  the  child  as  you  work  out  a  sum  on  the  black- 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

board,  note  if  the  eyes  are  moved  accurately  and 
steadily  towards  the  figures  and  lines  of  the  sum ; 
again,  note  if  she  move  her  hands  and  fingers  accu- 
rately in  imitation  of  )()urs  when  doing  physical  exer- 
cises. Want  of  control  of  the  hand  through  the  eyes 
may  produce  mistakes  taken  for  mental  faults. 

Making  an  observation  is,  primarily,  an  act  of  seeing, 
and  appreciating  what  you  see ;  after  observing  you 
need  to  describe  what  you  have  seen.  Seeing  teaches 
much  ;  describing  what  you  see  will  add  accuracy  to 
your  work  and  enable  you  to  acquire  a  sound  experi- 
ence, which  you  can  compare  with  that  of  others  and 
correct  from  time  to  time.  The  points  most  commonly 
observed  in  the  body  and  brain  action  of  children  are 
described  in  Chapters  II.,  III.,  VI.,  while  to  aid  the 
description  of  points  below  the  normal  a  list  of  such 
signs  is  given  and  a  schedule  form  is  added  which  may 
be  conveniently  used  in  recording  observations. 

As  the  studies  before  us  deal  largely  with  the  body 
and  mind  or  the  mental  action  of  the  brain,  chapters 
will  be  devoted  to  the  observation  of  mental  expression 
and  movement.  This  leads  me  to  speak  of  the  differ- 
ences between  signs  which  indicate  general  brain 
status,  its  health  and  power  on  the  one  hand,  and 
mental  expression  on  the  other. 

Case  6.  A  boy  well  made,  healthy,  and  well  grown  in 
body,  head,  and  features :  his  movements  are  quick  and 
exact,  he  turns  his  eyes  towards  objects  steadily  and 


lO  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

imitates  movements  well,  while  his  speech  is  good. 
His  body  and  brain  appear  well  made  and  active.  On 
testing  his  mental  ability  it  appeared  that,  though  he 
could  count  coins,  he  was  not  able  to  add  their  value  or 
calculate  the  change :  he  could  read  and  write,  but  both 
slowly  and  badly.  The  boy's  brain  was  good  enough 
for  the  action  and  general  activities  of  life  and  labour, 
but  the  purely  mental  processes  were  performed  very 
indifferently. 

The  general  conditions  of  make  and  power  of  brain 
are  ascertained  by  observation  of  the  "nerve-signs," 
which  are  movements,  action,  balance,  gestures,  or  other 
motor  acts ;  they  may  be  normal  or  below  the  normal. 
Mental  signs  are  mainly  obtained  in  speech,  expression 
of  judgment  in  making  a  choice,  memory. 

You  will  often  find  that  modes  of  mental  action, 
whether  good  or  faulty,  correspond  to  the  manner  of 
movement  and  action. 

The  child  who,  when  spoken  to,  suddenly  goes 
through  a  number  of  extra-movements,  excited  but  not 
controlled  by  the  spoken  word,  is  liable,  at  the  same 
time,  to  mental  confusion  and  may  make  some  absurd 
mental  error. 

Case  7.  A  boy  whose  eyes  are  wandering  every- 
where, with  the  head  moving  and  the  fingers  twitching, 
is  asked  to  say  what  he  knows  about  King  Charles  I., 
and  replies  that  he  had  his  head  cut  off  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.     Such  mental  confusion  often    accompanies 


IN  1 KODUCrORV  1 1 

excessive  nervous  movements,  and  its  removal  may  be 
helped  by  good  physical  training. 

I  shall  not  speak  of  Mind,  Consciousness,  Feeling, 
Will,  and  Judgment  as  something  imj)lanted  in  the 
body,  —  that  is  apart  from  and  outside  the  scope  of  this 
work, — but  I  shall  describe  for  you,  as  clearly  as  pos- 
sible, in  detail,  with  examples,  all  the  points  we  can 
observe  as  indicating  mental  action  in  the  brain,  and 
analyse  many  modes  of  action  and  some  verbal  expres- 
sions, showing  facts  and  faults  in  mental  action. 

Childhood  presents  so  many  varieties,  that  to  deal 
with  the  subject  concisely  and  in  form  convenient  for 
study,  it  will  be  necessary  to  present  certain  classes 
and  groups  of  children  as  we  find  them  in  the  child 
population.  Children  may  be  classed  as  mentally 
bright  or  dull,  as  weak  and  delicate  or  nervous ;  that  is, 
according  to  certain  difficulties  we  find  in  them :  again, 
they  may  be  grouped  according  to  points  seen  in  them, 
as  quick  and  exact  in  all  movements  or  slow  in  response 
and  inexact  in  imitation  ;  as  ill-proportioned  in  head  and 
features,  as  over-mobile  or  motionless,  or  as  deaf  and 
of  defective  sight. 

In  an  elementary  school  I  saw  447  boys  and  445 
girls,  of  whom  the  teachers  reported  41  boys  and  23 
girls  as  dull  or  backward  pupils.  Of  these  dull  chil- 
dren only  6  boys  and  1 1  girls  were  free  of  all  faults 
that  could  be  seen  in  the  body  and  in  action.  Twenty- 
nine  of  these  boys  and  8  of  these  girls,  found  to  be  dull 


12  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

at  lessons,  showed  "  abnormal  nerve-signs,"  or  indica- 
tions of  brain-disorderliness  —  slouching,  listlessness, 
inaccuracy  in  action  and  in  looking,  —  points  that 
may  generally  be  removed  by  good  physical  training, 
whereupon  improved  mental  action  would  probably 
follow.  There  were  in  all,  83  boys  and  30  girls 
grouped,  as  presenting  these  nerve-signs,  showing  how 
much  that  school  needed  more  attention  to  physical 
training. 

The  method  of  observing  what  may  be  seen  in  each 
child,  and  then  grouping  the  children,  according  to  the 
points  seen  in  them,  may  give  much  useful  informa- 
tion. The  group  "  nerve-cases  "  was  more  than  two 
per  cent  above  the  average  in  this  school. 

A  knowledge  of  the  signs  of  the  condition  of  the 
brain  will  also  be  useful.  I  have  seen  a  young  woman, 
who  presented  the  complete  type  of  nervous  exhaus- 
tion, standing  before  her  class,  truly  an  object  for 
sympathy,  but  a  bad  impression  must  have  been  pro- 
duced thereby  upon  the  pupils. 

Let  me  present  to  you  a  report  of  what  was  seen  at 
a  high-class  school  I  was  invited  to  visit. 

Third  class.  Twenty-nine  boys  present  at  a  lecture 
on  geometry,  2.30  o'clock.  The  lesson  proceeded  as 
usual.  I  observed  the  boys  during  the  lecture,  first 
from  the  master's  desk,  afterwards  from  a  side-table, 
so  as  to  get  a  good  profile  view. 

This  group  of  boys  appeared  generally  healthy  and 


INTRODUCTORY  I 3 

well.     As  I   looked  at  each  boy  at   his  desk,  eight  of 
them  attracted  my  attention  :  — 

A,  B.    Two  used  spectacles. 

C,  D.  Two  did  not  use  spectacles,  but  appeared  to 
be  short-sighted. 

E,  F.    Two  showed  some  developmental  defects. 

G,  H.  Two  appeared  somewhat  exhausted  in  the 
nerve-system,  and  are  likely  to  be  subject 
to  headaches ;  this  is  probably  not  a  tempo- 
rary condition. 

No  detailed  examination  of  individual  boys  was 
made,  but  the  grounds  of  the  opinion  given  in  the 
cases  of  E,  F  and  G,  H  may  be  stated.  E,  F  showed 
no  signs  of  brain-exhaustion  or  of  headaches.  The 
following  signs  of  defective  development  are  probably 
of  long  standing,  or  from  birth :  — 

Case  8.  E.  One  of  the  biggest  boys  in  the  class ;  he 
must  weigh  heavy,  and  speaks  with  a  loud  voice.  As 
signs  of  defective  development  I  observed  that  the 
ears  were  ill-shapen,  the  head  too  round  in  form  and 
wanting  in  characteristic  points.  As  a  sign  of  defect 
(probably  permanent)  in  the  nerve-system,  there  was 
excessive  and  coarse  action  of  the  muscles  in  the  fore- 
head, causing  horizontal  and  vertical  furrows.  Evi- 
dence that  he  was  not  exhausted  was  seen  in  the 
symmetry  of  nerve-muscular  action  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  body.     It  was  observed  that  the  over-muscular 


14  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

action  of  the  face  lessened  as  the  lecture  proceeded. 
He  lost  places  in  class. 

Case  9.  F.  A  small  boy  with  a  badly  shapen  head, 
though  it  was  not  small ;  this  may  have  been  due  to 
rickets  in  early  life.  As  to  the  nerve-system,  he  was 
too  mobile,  and  there  was  a  little  over-action  of  the 
frontal  muscles.  He  was  distinctly  fidgety  or  playful, 
and  lost  places  in  class. 

Case  10.  G.  A  boy  of  fair  complexion,  with  light 
hair,  rather  under  the  average  size,  but  placed  second 
in  class.  The  following  signs  of  nerve-exhaustion  were 
seen  :  too  little  general  mobility  in  the  limbs  and  in 
the  mobile  features  of  the  face,  producing  a  dull  ex- 
pression ;  in  the  forehead,  however,  there  were  fine 
horizontal  lines  or  furrows,  due  to  recurrent  over-action 
of  the  frontal  muscles.  A  further  sign  of  exhaustion 
and  probable  liability  to  headaches  was  observed  in 
marked  fulness  under  the  eyes.  No  signs  of  devel- 
opmental defects   were  apparent. 

Case  II.  H.  A  boy  of  fair  complexion,  with  light 
hair,  placed  twenty-fourth  in  the  class;  he  lost  places. 
The  signs  of  nerve-exhaustion  were  :  over-mobility ;  the 
arms  were  several  times  thrown  about,  often  with 
the  left  hand  clenched ;  he  was  decidedly  fidgety. 
There  was  fulness  under  each  eye,  indicating  that 
probably  he  is  a  sufferer  from  headaches.  In  addi- 
tion, a  slight  sign  of  developmental  defect  was  seen ; 
the  left  ear  was  ill-formed. 


INTRODUCTORY  1 5 

Examples  might  easily  be  multiplied. 

Of  all  the  points  to  be  indicated  for  your  use  in 
the  observation  and  description  of  children,  the 
"  nerve-signs "  will,  I  am  sure,  prove  to  be  the  most 
important  and  interesting,  because  it  is  the  move- 
ments and  balance,  the  gestures,  action,  and  response, 
observed  in  the  child  that  indicate  or  express  his 
brain  state.  Here  we  have  some  new  work,  and 
these  signs  will,  I  hope,  be  of  interest  to  you,  be- 
cause each  depends  upon  the  mode  of  action  of 
some  piece  of  the  brain  at  the  time  you  make  your 
observation.  Such  signs  of  brain-disorderliness  are 
much  associated  with  the  causes  of  mental  dulness ; 
as  soon  as  the  teacher  recognises  this,  he  will  try, 
by  further  physical  training,  to  improve  the  child  in 
each  aspect,  and  remove  the  signs  of  motor  and 
mental  disorder  one  by  one. 


CHAPTER    II 

The  Body  of  the  Child,  its  Construction  and 
Growth 

A  BRIEF  sketch  of  the  infant  will  be  useful  to  a 
full  understanding  of  the  development  of  the  brain, 
as  it  quickly  acquires  some  of  those  characters  which 
give  the  child  capacity  for  mental  life. 

The  infant  at  birth  weighs  from  seven  to  ten 
pounds. 

Average  height  or  length  in  inches  .... 

Average  weight  in  pounds 

Average  girth  of  chest  in  inches 

Average  circumference  of  head  in  inches  .     . 

The  head  of  the  infant  differs  in  many  particulars 
from  that  of  the  child  of  school  age,  and  these  are 
important  to  the  proper  understanding  of  its  growth 
and  some  of  the  later  defects.  The  bones  of  the 
skull  are  very  thin,  the  size  of  the  head  very  nearly 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  brain  which  it  contains ; 
the  bones  are  not  united  at  their  edges  to  form  a 
rigid  bony  case  as  in  the  adult,  but  are  separate  at 
their  margins  so  as  to  be  movable  on  one  another; 
this  allows    for    a   rapid    increase    in    the    size    of   the 

i6 


Male 

Female 

19-34 

18.98 

7-55 

7-23 

13-25 

12.65 

13-95 

13-57 

THE   BODY   OF  THE   (HII.D  1 7 

head  as  the  brain  grows.  The  size  of  the  head  is 
of  interest,  for  small-headed  infants  are  less  likely 
to  live ;  the  brain  is  the  principal  seat  of  vitality. 
The  corners  of  four  of  the  bones  are  incomplete 
towards  the  top  of  the  head,  thus  leaving  an  open 
space,  called  the  soft  spot  or  fontanelle,  covered  by 
a  membrane  and  the  scalp,  where  there  is  no  bone ; 
here  the  brain  may  be  felt  pulsating  and  swelling 
up  when  the  infant  cries. 

The  nose  of  the  young  infant  is  but  little  developed, 
and  is  flat  and  sunken  in  comparison  with  that  of  an 
older  child. 

At  nine  months  old  the  fontanelle  can  .still  be  felt, 
the  head  is  still  open  and  growing  fast,  it  measures 
about  lyl  inches  in  circumference;  at  twelve  months, 
19  inches;  and  at  seven  years,  20  to  21  inches.  You 
must  not,  however,  expect  always  to  find  the  head  as 
large  as  here  given,  even  in  healthy  children ;  but 
after  three  years  old  a  circumference  of  19  inches  is 
too  small. 

Teething  usually  begins  at  the  seventh  or  eighth 
month,  the  lower  front  teeth  being  the  first  to  appear, 
then  the  corresponding  ones  in  the  upper  jaw;  the 
sharp-pointed  canines  come  through  at  about  the 
eighteenth  month,  and  the  others  follow  till  the  full 
number  of  twenty  milk  teeth  appear,  which  is  accom- 
plished during  the  second  year.  At  the  age  of  six 
or  seven  years  children  begin  to  lose  their  first  teeth, 


1 8  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

and  the  permanent  ones  appear.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  say  that  children's  teeth  should  be  kept  care- 
fully clean  at  all  ages. 

TABLE   L  — OF   DENTITION   PERIODS 
Temporary  Set  or  Milk    Teeth 

First  Group — Two  lower  central  incisors  appear   .  6th  to    8th  month 

Second  Group  —  Four  upper  incisors  appear      .     .  Sth  to  loth      " 
Third   Group  —  Lower  lateral  incisors,  upper  and 

lower  front  molars,  appear I2th  to  14th       " 

Fourth  Group  —  Canines,  upper  usually  first,  appear  i  Sth  to  20th      " 

Fifth  Group  —  Posterior  molars  appear     ....  2  years  to  i\  years 

Molars  Canines         Incisors 

r  Upper 2-2  i-i  2-2-) 

Full  Set^     ^  V20 

•-  Lower 2-2  i-i  2-2  > 

Permanent   Teeth 

Molars,  first appear  at 6  years 

Incisors,  central "  7 

"         lateral "  8 

Bicuspids,  anterior    ....  "  9 

"  posterior  ....  "  10 

Canines "  11  to  12 

Molars,  second "  12  to  13 

"        third "  17  to  25 

Molars         Bicuspids       Canines         Incisors 

f  Upper   . '   .      .      .      .      3-3  2-2  I-I  2-2  1 

Full  Set  I     ^'  ^^  [32 

I  Lower 3-3  2-2  I-I  2-2  J 

We  are  now  mainly  concerned  with  the  child  of 
school  age  ;  the  head  has  grown  rapidly  since  infancy 
and  should  present  neither  ridges  nor  lumps,  and  the 
brain    has    attained  within    a   little    of   its  full  weight. 


THE  i]onv  OF  THE  cnn.i)  19 

See  Table  V.  The  head  has  acquired  a  distinctive 
shape,  expanding  from  the  base  at  the  level  of  the 
ears,  its  widest  diameter  being  behind  the  situation  of 
the  ears,  but  with  good  expanse  of  forehead.  The 
head  contains  the  bony  skull,  the  upper  part  of  which 
forms  the  brain-case.  The  lower  jaw  is  the  only  part 
of  the  skull  that  can  move  separately  from  the  rest. 
This  bone  is  jointed  on  to  the  skull;  it  is  depressed 
when  the  teeth  are  separated,  and  brought  up  again 
by  the  muscles  when  the  mouth  is  closed ;  the  lower 
jaw  can  be  moved  up  and  down  as  well  as  laterally 
jfl.  mastication.  The  eyeballs  are  set  in  their  sockets 
or  cavities  in  the  skull,  called  the  orbits,  resting  among 
the  fatty  tissue  which  supports  them.  The  movements 
of  the  eyes  are  produced  by  small  muscles  attached 
to  the  eyeball  and  arising  from  the  walls  of  the  orbit. 
These  muscles  are  supplied  by  three  different  pairs 
of  nerves  from  the  brain.  If  the  fat  in  the  orbit  be 
diminished  in  quantity,  the  eyeball  sinks  further  into 
the  orbit ;  if  it  receives  more  blood,  it  swells  up  and 
pushes  the  eyeball  more  forward.  The  coloured 
portion  of  the  eye  is  called  the  iris ;  it  is  a  muscular 
curtain  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  which  appears  black : 
this  aperture  is  called  the  pupil,  and  may  contract  or 
become  very  large.  In  description  we  must  not  con- 
fuse the  eyeballs  with  the  eyelids,  which  frame  the 
openings  for  the  eyes. 

The    face    consists   of    the    soft    parts    which    lie    in 


20  THE   STUDY   OK   CHILDREN 

front  of  the  skull ;  under  the  skin  there  is  a  layer  of 
fat,  and  muscles  passing  in  various  directions  which, 
being  attached  to  the  skin,  move  it  and  produce  the 
expression  of  the  face.  A  circular  muscle  surrounds 
each  of  the  openings  of  the  face  :  the  circular  muscle 
around  each  eye-opening  is  called  the  orbicularis 
oculi ;  when  it  contracts,  the  eyelids  are  closed :  the 
mouth  is  closed  in  the  same  way.  These  muscles, 
when  stimulated  by  the  nerves  from  the  brain,  move 
the  face,  as  will  be  explained  in  the  next  chapter. 

Two  pairs  of  muscles  in  the  forehead  are  of  special 
interest  to  us :  the  frontal  muscles  are  placed  verti- 
cally and  by  their  contraction  raise  the  eyebrows 
and  produce  horizontal  creases  in  the  skin  of  the 
forehead ;  the  corrugators  are  two  small  muscles, 
placed  in  a  horizontal  position  in  the  middle  part  of 
the  forehead  which,  when  they  contract,  draw  the 
eyebrows  together,  producing  vertical  creases  in  the 
mid-frontal  region. 

Two  pairs  of  muscles  seen  in  the  face  are  concerned 
in  mastication,  rather  than  with  expression :  these  are 
called  the  masseters  —  they  are  situated  about  the 
angle  of  the  jaw  on  either  side ;  and  the  temporals, 
which  are  placed  at  the  side  of  the  head,  in  those 
parts  called  the  temples.  If  you  strongly  clench  your 
teeth,  you  will  feel  these  mu.scles  become  hard. as  they 
contract  and  swell  out.  All  these  structures  which 
make    up    what    is    called    the  face    are    supplied  with 


THE   BODY   OF  THE   CHILD 


21 


."%f 


M 


Fig.  I.  — MUSCLES  OF  Facial  Expression.  —  From  Sir  Charles  Bell's  ^«a/- 
orny  and  Philosophy  of  Expression,  Third  Edition  (Bohn  Library). 

AA      The  frontal  muscle. 

DB  The  corrugator  muscle.  It  is  inserted  into  the  integument  under  the  eye- 
brow. It  lies  nearly  transversely,  and  its  office  is  to  knit  and  draw 
the  eyebrows  together. 

CC      The  circular  muscle  of  the  eyelids  (orbicularis  palpebrarum). 

DEL  Muscles  moving  the  nostrils. 

KK  The  circular  muscle  of  the  mouth  and  lips.  Its  office  is  to  close  the 
lips;  in  excessive  action  it  produces  pouting. 

HH  The  zygomatic  muscle.  It  is  inserted  at  the  angle  of  the  mouth  :  by  its 
action  its  widens  the  mouth,  as  in  grinning. 

A'A'^  Depressor  labiorum.  .  It  depresses  the  angles  of  the  mouth;  other  mus- 
cles of  expression  are  also  represented. 


22  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

blood-vessels,  and  the  quantity  of  blood  in  them  is 
also  under  brain  control,  through  a  nerve  called  the 
sympathetic.  When  much  blood  rushes  to  the  face, 
the  child  is  said  to  blush  ;  when  the  sympathetic 
nerve  allows  but  little  blood  to  pass  into  it,  the  face 
is  pale. 

The  openings  for  the  eyes  (palpebral  fissures)  are 
placed  between  the  upper  and  the  lower  eyelids ;  the 
line  joining  the  angles  of  the   openings  is   horizontal. 

The  nose  has  been  referred  to  as  a  feature  in  the 
face.  It  is  necessary  to  understand  its  importance  as 
the  proper  entrance  for  the  air  breathed  ;  a  free  en- 
trance of  air  by  the  nose  is  important  to  the  child,  and 
a  knowledge  of  some  points  in  the  structure  of  the 
nose,  throat,  and  organ  of  hearing  is  necessary  to  our 
purpose.  Air  entering  by  the  nose  passes  above  the 
hard  and  soft  palate  to  the  back  of  the  throat,  where  a 
tube  (eustachian)  leads  air  into  the  portion  of  the  ear 
which  is  concerned  in  hearing.  If  there  is  any  obstruc- 
tion to  this  free  entrance  of  air,  the  child  becomes  deaf 
or  dull  of  hearing.  The  nose  is  the  proper  way  of 
entrance  and  exit  for  the  air  breathed,  and  the  child 
should  be  able  to  breathe  easily  with  the  mouth  closed 
and  the  lips  together.  If  the  child  cannot  breathe 
thus,  but  habitually  keeps  the  lips  parted,  there  is 
probably  something  wrong  with  the  throat  or  nose. 
Such  habitual  mouth-breathing  is  very  important; 
mouth-breathers  need  medical  examination. 


THE    BODY   OV  THK   CHILD 


23 


The  external  ears  should  be  alike  in  form,  and  stand 
out  but  slightly  from  the  head.  The  external  ear  con- 
sists of  parts  each 
of  which  should  be 
present :  the  rim  or 
margin  curls  over 
slightly ;  in  front  of 
this  is  the  pleat  of 
the  ear  (antehelix) 
jutting  out  in  front, 
and  you  will  find  it 
is  thrust  forward 
from  the  back ;  the 
lobe  or  drooping 
portion  of  the  ear 
should  come  below 
the  point  of  attach- 
ment to  the  head. 

The  trunk  or  body 
has  a  bony  frame- 
work, of  which  the 
spine  is  the  main 
prop  or  support. 
The  spine  consists 
of  a  number  of 
small  bones,  united 
by  pads  of  cartilage  or  soft  material,  which  allow  of 
a  certain  amount  of   movement  in  the  column  formed 


Fig.  2.  — Bones  of  thk  Spine.  Chest, 
Shoulder,  Arm,  and  Hand.  —  From 
Sir  Charles  Bell's  work  on  7'/if  Hand. 


24  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

by  the  bones,  so  that  the  spine  can  be  bent  to  some 
degree  forwards  and  backwards  or  laterally.  The  skull 
is  jointed  to  the  top  of  this  column. 

The  ribs  are  attached  to  the  spine  behind  and  to  the 
breast  bone  in  front,  forming  the  walls  of  the  chest. 

The  chest  and  the  important  organs,  the  heart  and 
the  lungs,  which  it  contains,  grow  as  the  child  grows. 
The  average  chest  girth  for  children  at  various  ages 
is  given  in  Table  IV.  It  is  very  important  that  the 
chest  should  be  free  to  move  in  breathing :  it  should 
never  be  compressed  by  the  dress. 


Fig.  3. —The  Radius  and  Ulna.  —  In  this  sketch,  the  upper  bone  of  the 
forearm  is  the  radius,  and  in  revolving  on  the  lower  bone,  the  ulna,  it 
carries  the  hand  with  it.  —  C.  Bell. 

The  arm  or  upper  extremity  consists  of  the  blade 
bone  placed  over  the  back  of  the  trunk ;  the  collar 
bone  stretches  horizontally  from  the  blade  bone  to  the 
breast  bone,  and  helps  to  keep  it  in  its  proper  place ; 
the  arm  is  hung  from  this  blade  bone.  The  upper  arm 
contains  the  bone  called  the  humerus  jointed  at  the 
shoulder  to  the  blade  bone.  The  forearm  has  two 
bones  —  the  radius  on  the  outer  or  thumb  side,  and 
the  ulna  on  the  inner  side :  these  two  bones  are  jointed 


THE   BODY   OF  THE   CHILD  2$ 

to  the  humerus  at  the  elbow,  and  allow  of  two  kinds 
of  movement.  The  elbow  can  be  bent  or,  as  we  say, 
flexed,  and  it  can  be  straightened  or  extended :  a  rota- 
tory movement  or  half  a  circle  can  also  be  performed 
at  the  elbow.  When  the  palm  of  the  hand  is  brought 
forward  or  laid  upward,  the  forearm  is  said  to  be 
supine,  and  this  movement  is  called  supination  ;  when 
the  back  of  the  hand  is  brought  forward,  the  movement 
is  called  pronation.  This  rotatory  action  at  the  elbow 
is  due  to  movements  of  the  radius  on  the  humerus. 

The  wrist  is  composed  of  eight  small  bones,  and 
this  joint  allows  of  movements  in  all  directions. 

The  hand  has  four  fingers  and  a  thumb,  spoken 
of  collectively  as  the  digits ;  these  are  united  to  five 
bones,  which  form  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  are 
jointed  at  the  \Yrist.  The  palm  of  the  hand  can  be 
moved  at  the  wrist  in  flexion  or  extension  as  well 
as  laterally ;  it  can  also  be  contracted  or  screwed  up 
by  bringing  the  bones  together,  so  as  to  form  the 
hand  like  a  cone.  The  digits  can  be  flexed  or  ex- 
tended, and  they  can  be  moved  laterally. 

These  parts  have  been  particularly  mentioned  be- 
cause we  are  concerned  with  their  separate  movements. 
When  we  look  at  a  child  we  see  these  parts  clothed 
with  their  muscles  and  soft  tissues,  and  covered  with 
skin ;  we  observe  the  members,  their  form  and  pro- 
portions, and  in  some  degree  we  judge  of  the  develop- 
ment and  state  of  nutrition  of  the  child  by  such  facts. 


26  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

When  examining"  a  child,  you  should,  if  possible, 
weigh  him  and  measure  his  height  and  chest  girth, 
and  also  test  sight  and  hearing.  In  taking  a  chest 
measurement  let  the  child  stand  with  his  arms  hanging 
by  his  sides,  and  make  him  count  aloud  the  while  to 
assure  he  is  not  holding  in  his  breath.  The  measur- 
ing tape  is  then  passed  horizontally  round  the  child  on 
a  level  with  the  breast,  and  the  number  of  inches  in 
girth  is  recorded. 

With  growth  from  infancy  the  child  becomes  taller 
and  increases  in  weight;  this  is  shown  in  Table  II., 
copied  from  Dr.  Bowditch's  article  on  the  growth  of 
children  whom  he  measured  in  Boston.^  It  is  here 
necessary  to  consider  the  boys  and  the  girls  separately 
and  to  compare  them  in  age  groups.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that,  though  at  earlier  ages  the  boys  are  on 
the  average  taller  and  heavier  than  the  girls,  yet  at 
13  to  14  years  the  girl  outgrows  the  boy  in  each  par- 
ticular :  after  this  age  the  boy  again  grows  quicker  to 
the  stage  of  full  development. 

Children  are  best  weighed  in  the  morning  in  their 
ordinary  indoor  clothes,  and  measured  in  their  stock- 
ings, without  boots. 

The  average  increase  in  height  and  weight  is  given 
in  Table  III.,  to  which  reference  will  again  be  made  in 
Chapter  X. 

Growth,    however,    is    not    simply    indicated    by   the 

1  See  the  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Massachusetts,  1877. 


THE   150DV   OF  THE   CHILD  2/ 

height,  chest  measurenieiit,  and  weight  of  the  child ; 
he  may  grow  well  developed  or  badly  developed.  A 
boy  may  be  tall  and  heavy,  yet  not  well  developed  in 
body  and  in  features.  It  will  be  shown  upon  ample 
evidence  from  my  observations,  that  defective  physi- 
ognomy in  make  and  proportioning  of  the  features  is 
apt  to  be  accompanied  by  low  brain-power  with  de- 
fective nutrition  in  after  life.  To  study  the  general 
character  of  the  development  of  the  child's  body  the 
separate  features  of  the  face  must  be  observed. 

You  want  to  know,  as  to  the  child's  body,  not  only 
whether  it  is  well  grown  and  well  developed  for  his  age, 
but  also  whether  he  shows  the  indications  of  a  well- 
nourished  and  healthy  body  in  his  physii^al  life,  as  apart 
from  his  brain  condition  and  mental  power.  Do  not  be 
guided  in  making  your  observations  by  indications  of 
poverty,  but  satisfy  yourself  by  what  you  see,  that  the 
child  is  not  pale,  thin,  or  delicate.  The  following 
points  may  help  you  :  look  at  the  face  as  to  colour ; 
do  not  mistake  a  fair  complexion  with  light  hair  and 
blue  eyes  for  paleness,  or  a  dark  complexion  for  its 
absence.  Look  also  at  the  colour  of  the  lips,  and  the 
colour  seen  through  the  finger-nails,  which  disappears 
upon  pressure.  A  pale  child  may  flush  in  the  face, 
but  such  flushing  is  temporary.  When  you  note  the 
colour  of  the  lips  and  skin,  as  signs  of  the  general 
nutrition,  observe  also  the  hair  and  the  eyes ;  when 
these  are  dark,  it  is  owing  to  the  amount  of  pigment 


28  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

in  these  structures,  and  then  the  skin  is  usually  darker 
in  its  tint.  Observe  whether  the  colour  comes  and 
o-oes  •  such  chancres  are  due  to  the  action  of  the  nerve- 
system  on  the  blood-vessels.  If  there  be  permanent 
paleness,  it  may  be  due  to  a  poor  state  of  the  blood, 
called  anaemia;  then  the  child  is  out  of  health.  A 
pale  child  may  flush  much.  Defective  colour  may  be 
due  to  ill  feeding,  to  living  in  rooms  badly  ventilated, 
hot  and  close,   or  too  dark. 

The  fulness,  fatness,  or  plumpness  of  the  child  may 
not  be  alike  all  over  the  body.  The  face  may  be  fairly 
full,  while  the  limbs  are  thin.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  in  the  nervous  children,  in  whom  the  body  weight 
may  at  times  fall  rapidly,  dropping  one  or  two  pounds 
a  week  without  any  disease  or  even  any  failure  of  ap- 
petite ;  this  is  a  condition  in  which  a  child  commonly 
develops  chorea  (St.  Vitus's  dance) ;  as  the  body  weight 
drops,  the  face  may  continue  to  be  the  best  nourished 
part,  but  the  child  is  apt  to  become  more  infantile  and 
over-mobile ;  this  is  specially  apt  to  occur  in  girls.  Weigh- 
ing the  child  will  add  accuracy  to  your  observations. 

The  eye  may  have  a  wrong  focus.  The  eyeball  is  an 
optical  instrument,  which  if  properly  arranged  produces 
a  clear  picture  of  objects  upon  the  retina,  which  is  the 
sensitive  layer  at  the  back  of  the  eye ;  it  is  something 
like  the  camera  of  the  photographer,  but  its  focus  must 
be  properly  adjusted  to  produce  clear  sight:  if  the 
eye  is  out  of  focus,  sight  will  be  defective.     There  are 


THE   BODY   OF  THE  CHILD  29 

two  principal  forms  of  badly  built,  badly  proportioned 
eyes : — 

1.  The  small  flat  eye.     (Hypermetropia.) 

2.  The  long  eye,  which  causes  short  sight.  (Myopia.) 
The  small  flat  eye  is  irregularly  developed  or  propor- 
tioned at  birth,  the  condition  is  congenital ;  it  is  under- 
sized and  the  condition  is  often  inherited.  It  does  not 
produce  clear  pictures  on  the  retina,  and  the  focussing 
apparatus  (muscle  of  accommodation)  is  strained,  to  pro- 
duce clear  vision  of  the  letters  in  a  book.  This  may 
lead  to  headaches  or  to  squinting.  Squinting  is  usually 
due  to  the  eye  being  small  and  flat ;  such  children, 
when  old  enough,  should  be  provided  with  proper  spec- 
tacles, and  they  should  always  use  them  when  reading 
or  writing. 

The  eye  too  long  from  front  to  back  leads  to  such 
bad  focussing  that  vision  is  indistinct  and  the  child 
near-sighted.  This  condition  is  not  found  at  birth, 
though  the  tendency  to  short  sight  may  be  inherited  ; 
it  usually  develops  during  school  life,  and  is  in  part 
preventable  by  the  use  of  glasses  and  attention  to  the 
position  of  the  child  when  at  work.  Do  not  let  chil- 
dren bend  over  their  desks ;  still,  remember  that  the 
short-sighted  child  cannot  sit  up  and  see  his  book  on 
a  flat  desk.  To  save  children  from  becoming  short- 
sighted, prevent  them  from  using  their  eyes  too  long 
and  too  closely  on  near  objects.  The  boy  should  sit  up 
well,  with  his  head  upright  and  his  eyes  at  least  twelve 


30  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

inches  from  his  book  ;  the  desk  should  have  a  sloping 
top,  and  the  seat  must  be  properly  adjusted  to  his 
height :  books  of  bad  type  should  always  be  avoided, 
and  the  light  should  be  sufficient,  especially  at  night. 

Each  child  should  be  tested  as  to  sight  when  he 
enters  the  school  and  at  least  once  a  year  afterwards. 
A  set  of  printed  type  should  be  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose :  such  are  published,  and  arranged  as  to  the  size 
of  the  letters  so  that  with  clear  vision  each  line  can  bt; 
seen  at  the  distance  named  on  the  sheet;  this  should 
be  hung  on  the  wall  in  a  good  light.  A  child,  standing;' 
at  the  proper  distance,  should  be  able  to  read  the  letters 
readily  :  test  each  eye  separately,  covering  the  other 
with  a  card  in  front  of  it ;  if  the  child  cannot  thus 
see  the  letters  with  each  eye,  there  is  some  defect  of 
sight. 

Again :  let  the  child  stand  and  look  at  a  small  coin 
held  before  his  face  two  feet  from  his  nose ;  if  you  see 
that  his  eyes  then  turn  inwards  with  the  appearance  of 
a  slight  temporary  cast  or  squint,  he  probably  has  flat 
eyes  (hypermetropia)  and  requires  convex  glasses. 

You  may  test  hearing  by  your  watch  or  by  your 
voice.  In  using  your  watch  ascertain  previously  how 
far  from  the  head  it  can  be  heard  by  persons  with  good 
hearing ;  use  a  measuring  tape,  holding  one  end  against 
the  ear  and  the  other  at  the  watch.  Direct  the  child 
to  close  his  eyes,  and  hold  a  sheet  of  paper  or  a  fan  to 
prevent   him  from  seeing  the  watch,  while   you  make 


THE   BODY   OF  THE   CHILD 


31 


him  close  the  opening  of  the  other  ear,  which  you  are 
not  testing.  Carry  your  watch  to  different  distances 
from  the  side  of  his  head,  square  with  it,  not  in  front 
of  him.  When  he  says  he  hears  the  watch,  note  the 
distance,  move  it  to  a  further  distance,  and  then  back 
again  to  the  former  place,  and  see  if  he  adheres  to  what 
he  said  before :  test  him  thus  several  times  and  examine 
each  ear  separately,  noting  the  greatest  distance  of 
hearing  with  each  ear. 


TABLE  n. 

Showing  Average  Heights  and  Weights  of  Boston  School 
Children  ok  American  Parentage 

After  Dr.  Bowditch.     See  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Massachusetts, 
1877.     Height  taken  without  shoes  ;  weight  in  ordinary  dress. 


Age  Last  Birthday 

Bovs 

Girls 

Inches 

Pounds 

Inches 

Pounds 

5  years 

41.74 

41.20 

41.47 

39.82 

6     " 

44.10 

45.14 

43.66 

43.81 

7     " 

46.21 

49-47 

45-94 

48.02 

8    " 

48.16 

54-43 

48.07 

52.93 

9     " 

50.09 

59-97 

49.61 

57-52 

10     " 

52.21 

66.62 

51.78 

64.09 

II     " 

54.01 

72-39 

53-79 

70.26 

12     " 

55-78 

79.82 

57.16 

81.35 

13     " 

58.17 

88.26 

58-75 

91.18 

14     " 

61.08 

99.28 

60.32 

100.32 

'5     " 

62.96 

110.S4 

61.39 

108.42 

16    " 

65.58 

123.67 

61.72 

112.97 

17    " 

66.29 

128.72 

61.99 

115.84 

18    " 

66.76 

132-71 

62.01 

115.80 

32 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


Testing  with  your  voice  has  the  advantage  that  if  the 
child  repeats  what  you  say  you  know  that  he  heard  you. 
You  should  stand  a  distance  of  several  yards  from  the 
child,  while  he  keeps  his  eyes  shut ;  he  must  not  see 
your  face,  as  he  might  read  the  sound  from  your  lips ; 
test  first  both  ears  together,  then  one  at  a  time.  An 
audible  whisper  may  be  heard  much  farther  than  the 
ticking  of  the  watch  ;  according  to  Mr.  T.  Mark  Hovell, 
whispered  speech  should  be  heard  at  about  twenty-five 
yards.  To  pronounce  single  words  is  better  than  to  ask 
a  question,  which  may  be  guessed  at. 

TABLE   HL 

Showing  the  Annual  Increase  in  Hp:ight  and  Weight 

After  Dr.  Bowditch.      I'ide  ante. 


Age  Last  Birthday 

Boys 

Girls 

Inches 

Pounds 

Inches 

Pounds 

5  years 

— 

— 

— 

— 

6     " 

2.36 

3-94 

2.19 

3-99 

7     " 

2. II 

4-33 

2.28 

4.21 

8     " 

1-95 

4.96 

2.13 

4.91 

9     " 

1-93 

5-54 

1.54 

4-59 

lO      " 

2.12 

6.65 

2.17 

6-57 

II     " 

1.80 

5-77 

2.01 

6.17 

12       " 

1.77 

743 

3-37 

11.09 

13     " 

2.39 

8.44 

1.59 

9-83 

14     " 

2.91 

1 1.02 

1-57 

9.14 

'5     " 

1.88 

11.56 

1.07 

8.10 

i6     " 

2.62 

12.83 

•33 

4-55 

17     " 

■71 

5-05 

.27 

2.87 

18     " 

•47 

3-99 

.02 

0.04 

THE   BODY   OF  THE   CHILD 


33 


TABLE  IV. 

Showing  Mt:LAsuRRMENTs  of  Chest  Girth  in  Chh.dren  at  Ages 
Corresponding 

After  Dr.  C.  Roberts'  observations  on  the  English  artisan  class. 


Age  Last 

Average  Chest 

Age  Last 

Average  Chest 

Birthday 

Girth  in  Inches 

Birthday 

Girth  in  Inches 

5  years 

21.40 

13  years 

25.24 

6     " 

21.68 

14     " 

26.28 

7     " 

22.54 

15     " 

27-51 

8     " 

23.09 

16     " 

28.97 

9     " 

23-79 

17     " 

29.38 

ID       " 

24.0S 

18     " 

30.07 

II       " 

24-34 

19     " 

30.56 

12       " 

2493 

20     " 

30.86 

TABLE  V. 

Showing  the  Average  Weight  or  the  Brain  of  Children  in 
Ounces  Avoirdupois 

After  Dr.  Boyd,  as  observed  by  him  in  2030  cases,  London.   .See  Dr.  Thurman's  article 
on  Weight  of  the  Brain,  Jou7-nal  of  Mental  Science,  1866. 


Females 


New  born  .... 
Under  3  niuntlis  . 
From  3  to  6  months 
From  6  tc3  12  months 
From  I  to  2  years  . 
From  2  to  4  years  . 
From  4  to  7  years  . 
I'rom  7  to  14  years  . 
From  14  to  20  years   . 


CHAPTER    III 
The  Brain  :  Its  Development  and  Evolution 

We  now  pass  on  to  consider  the  brain  itself,  its  func- 
tions, and  the  signs  of  its  action.  The  brain  is  a  part 
of  the  body  hidden  from  our  view,  and  enclosed  in  its 
bony  case  in  the  head.  The  brain  of  the  child  is  care- 
fully protected  from  injury,  being  surrounded  by  deli- 
cate membranes  and  a  slight  layer  of  fluid  ;  it  is  well 
supplied  with  blood,  which  circulates  and  supplies  it 
with  needful  nourishment. 

The  brain  is  a  soft  and  delicate  structure,  seated  in 
the  brain-case,  and  carefully  protected ;  it  consists  es- 
sentially of  two  kinds  of  material,  the  nerve-cells  and 
the  nerve-fibres.  The  nerve-cells  are  the  makers  of 
nerve-force  when  duly  nourished ;  for  their  proper 
nutrition  they  need  a  good  supply  of  blood  in  their 
vessels.  A  nerve-fibre  passes  off  from  each  cell  and 
conveys  the  force  generated  in  it,  which  is  then  called 
a  nerve-current ;  there  are  millions  of  such  cells  in 
the  structure  of  the  brain.  When  the  nerve-force 
generated  by  a  nerve-cell  is  carried  by  a  fibre  to  a 
muscle,  say  in  the  face,  or  in  the  limbs,  this  nerve- 
current  causes  the  muscle  to  contract  or  shorten,  and 

34 


THE   BRAIN  35 

visible  movement  results ;  the  movement  being  pro- 
duced by  the  force  sent  from  the  nerve-cell.  The 
movement  seen  indicates  to  us  the  time  and  quantity 
of  the  discharge  of  force  from  the  nerve-cell :  such 
a  movement  is  conveniently  called  a  nerve-muscular 
movement. 

The  substance  of  the  brain  is  thus  mainly  made  up 
of  groups  of  nerve-cells,  many  of  which  are  connected 
with  one  another  by  nerve-fibres,  while  many  of  them 
are  connected  with  the  muscles  of  the  body,  and  send 
jierve-currents  to  them,  thus  causing  the  movements 
of  the  face  and  limbs.  The  nerve-cell  generates  force 
as  the  outcome  'of  its  nutrition,  and  may  be  compared 
to  a  galvanic  cell  which  generates  electrical  force  as 
the  outcome  of  chemical  action  taking  place  in  it. 
The  electrical  force  formed  in  the  galvanic  cell  may 
be  conducted  to  a  distance  by  a  wire,  and  if  this  end 
be  connected  with  a  galvanometer,  it  may  produce 
movement  of  its  needle  at  a  distance  from  the  bat- 
tery. If  several  electrical  cells  be  connected  together 
in  series  by  means  of  wires,  the  force  generated  by  one 
cell  is  communicated  to  the  next,  and  increases  the 
strength  of  the  current  circulating  in  the  wire  that 
passes  off  from  the  battery ;  this  force  may  be  dis- 
tributed to  parts  at  a  distance  from  its  origin. 

As  time  goes  on,  the  strength  of  the  battery  will 
run  down,  the  chemical  action  in  it  lessens,  the  mate- 
rial in  the  battery  is  used  up,  and  no  more  force  is  sent 


36  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

out  till  the  materials  in  the  cell  are  renewed.  Simi- 
larly :  while  the  brain  is  giving  out  force,  it  must  be 
replenished  by  nutrition,  or  it  will  run  down  and  be 
less  capable  of  producing  energy  after  a  short  time; 
it  will  then  need  food  and  rest,  and  the  stimulus  which 
aids  brain-nutrition. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  nerve-cells  of  the  brain  as  being 
connected  with  one  another,  and  with  the  muscles  of 
the  body,  which  produce  movements  of  its  parts.  It 
must  now  be  explained  that  there  are  other  nerve- 
fibres  which  connect  the  organs  of  special  sense  — 
the  eye  and  the  ear,  etc.,  and  the  skin  all  over  the 
body  —  with  the  cells  of  the  brain,  and  convey  cur- 
rents of  force  from  these  parts,  respectively,  to  the 
cells  of  the  brain  ;  such  nerve-fibres  are  called  afferent, 
because  they  convey  currents  upwards  to  the  nerve- 
system ;  in  distinction  from  these,  the  fibres  which 
convey  currents  from  the  nerve-cells  to  the  muscles 
are  called  efferent.  The  fibres,  which  pass  in  both 
directions,  are  collected  into  bundles  or  strings,  and 
are  commonly  called  the  nerves  of  the  body;  the  in- 
going or  afferent  nerves  convey  stimuli  to  the  brain, 
the  outcoming  or  efferent  nerves  carry  motor  currents 
from  the  nerv^e-cells  to  the  muscles. 

Figure  4  may  explain  further  what  has  just  been 
said :  the  brain  is  represented  by  the  shading  as 
divided  into  areas  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  which  can  act 
more  or  less  independently;    each   area  or   section  of 


THE   BRAIN 


37 


brain  is  represented  as  connected  by  nerve-fibres 
with  a  muscle  corresponding.  Each  section  of  brain 
may  receive  a  stimuhis  from  the  eye  or  the  ear. 
The    representation    is    purely    diagrammatic,    for    the 

B  C O^ 


Fig.  4.  — Diagrammatic  Representation  of  the  Brain  and  its 
Nerves  in  connection  with  the  Eye,  the  Ear,  and  the 
Muscles. 

sake  of  clearness  of  description.  The  brain-areas 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E  each  receive  nerve-fibres  carrying  im- 
pressions from  the  eye  and  the  ear,  so  that  they 
can    separately    be    stimulated    by    sight    and    sound. 


38  THE    STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Fibres  pass  from  each  brain-area  to  the  muscles  a, 
b,  c,  d,  e,  respectively ;  when  A  is  stimulated,  the 
muscle  a  contracts ;  if  the  centre  E  be  stimulated, 
the  corresponding  muscle  c  contracts,  and  so  for 
each  centre  and  muscle  respectively ;  the  muscle  is 
the  visible  index  of  nerve-currents  proceeding  from 
its  own  centre.  If  we  see  the  muscles  a,  b,  contract 
at  the  same  moment,  that  indicates  that  the  centres 
A,  B  acted  together. 

If  you  see  my  arm  move,  you  know  this  means 
that  the  muscles  of  my  arm  are  contracting,  and 
that  this  is  due  to  currents  of  nerve-force  passing 
out  to  them  from  certain  nerve-cells  by  means  of 
the  efferent  or  motor  nerves.  Place  an  orange  in 
front  of  a  child ;  then  you  will  see  his  head  and 
eyes  turn  towards  it,  next  his  hand  is  moved  over 
the  orange,  his  fingers  are  closed  over  it,  and  it  is 
seized.  This  series  of  movements  is  due  to  a  series 
of  nerve-currents  passing  from  the  nerve-cells  to  the 
muscles  of  the  parts  moving ;  this  series  of  nerve- 
currents  from  the  nerve-cells  to  the  muscles  follows 
the  impression  produced  upon  the  brain,  by  the  sight 
of  the  orange,  or,  by  the  afferent  currents  passing 
from  the  eye  to  the  brain,  and  these  are  stimulated 
by  the  light  reflected  from  the  orange. 

Many  parts  of  the  brain  can  act  separately  :  every 
movement  corresponds  to  the  action  of  a  certain 
portion  of  the  nerve-system,  or,  as  we  call   it,  nerve- 


THE  BRAIN  39 

centre.  It  is  probable  that  every  movement  indi- 
cates the  discharge  of  force  from  a  certain  area  of 
nerve-substance,  and  that  such  discharge  of  force 
necessitates  not  only  a  supply  of  good  blood  to  that 
piece  of  nerve-tissue,  but  also  that  the  nerve-tissue 
shall  be  stimulated  by  some  force.  Stimulation  is 
necessary  to  movement  as  well  as  a  supply  of  blood 
to  the  nerve-centre  ;  sights  and  sounds  are  the  more 
common  stimuli  to  movements. 

Important  as  the  functions  of  the  brain  are,  and 
much  as  we  desire  to  study  its  action,  there  is  only 
one  way  in  which  we  can  watch  the  effects  of  its 
working,  and  that  is,  by  the  movements  which  it 
produces  in  the  parts  of  the  body  by  its  action  on 
the  muscles.  All  movements  in  the  body  are  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  the  nerve-system  upon  the 
muscles ;  this  is  very  important  to  remember.  Hence, 
we  shall  have  much  to  say  about  movements,  the 
outcome  of  movements,  and  mobile  expression  as 
signs  of  brain-action  and  the  brain-condition.^ 

It  may  occur  to  you  that,  as  much  has  been  said 
by  physiologists  about  the  connection  between  the 
mind  and  the  brain,  wc  might  study  mental  action 
as  signs  of  brain-action.  Let  me  make  an  assertion, 
and  then  support  it  by  illustrations.  All  expression 
of  the  action  of  nii?id  is  by  movement,  and  tJie  rcsnlts 
of  movement.     A  child  is  at  lessons,  he   repeats  what 

^  See  author's  work  on  "  Anatomy  of  Movement." 


40 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


he  has  been  taught,  accompanied  by  gestures  or 
movements ;  his  speech  is  produced  by  the  movements 
of  his  chest,  larynx,  and  the  parts  used  in  articula- 
tion. The  written  exercise  is  the  outcome  of  the 
movements  of  his  hand  acting  upon  the  pen.  His 
intelligence  may  be  shown  in  a  game,  in  the  house 
he  builds  with  his  bricks,  or  in  the  paper-folding 
which  he  does  so  neatly  with  his  fingers;  in  all  such 
cases  the  signs  of  the  action  of  mind  are  the  move- 
ments produced  by  the  brain. 

The  general  condition  of  the  nerve-system  is  ex- 
pressed by  motor  signs  —  freshness,  fatigue,  irritabil- 
ity, may  all  be  indicated  to  us  by  the  movements  of 
the  child,  the  absence  of  movements,  or  by  the  atti- 
tudes or  postures  of  the  body,  which  depend  upon 
motor  action.     Examples  will  be  given  in  Chapter  V. 

The  expression  of  the  emotions  is  by  the  action  of 
the  brain  upon  the  muscles  of  the  body,  and  their 
contractions  produce  the  signs  which  indicate  to  us 
what  are  called  the  emotions  of  the  mind.  We  shall 
here  study  movements  produced  by  the  brain,  not 
mind  itself,  in  the  child. 

Look  at  a  child  before  he  wakes  in  the  morning. 
The  body  is  quiet;  if  you  raise  his  hand  gently,  it 
falls  lifeless  —  no  muscular  energy  is  being  expended. 
The  body  is  motionless  in  full  sleep,  except  for  the 
movements  of  breathing,  which  are  quiet,  regular, 
uniform.      If    sleep    is    full   and    complete,   on    raising 


THE   BRAIN 


41 


the  eyelids  the  puj^ils  are  seen  to  be  very  small  or 
contracted.  The  body  and  brain  are  in  complete  rest; 
in  a  healthy,  well-fed  child  the  whole  system  is  in  the 
state  of  quiet  nutrition  of  organic  life ;  no  currents 
are  being  generated  by  the  brain  in  perfect,  dreamless 
sleep.  As  time  goes  on,  you  hear  sounds  in  the  house 
which  send  currents  from  the  child's  ear  to  his  brain  ; 
we  then  see  some  movements  of  the  limbs  —  the 
elbows,  wrists,  and  fingers  move.  Soon  all  is  seen  to 
be  quiet  again  in  the  limbs  —  sleep  continues,  and 
the  brain  rests  and  grows  without  expending  force. 
As  sounds  grow  stronger  in  the  house,  and  the  light 
I^ours  in  between  the  opened  curtains,  you  may  again 
see  movements  in  the  limbs,  and  the  eyelids  open  ;  the 
pupils  now  dilate ;  the  brain  becomes  active,  indicated 
by  movements  in  the  limbs  and  face,  as  the  child  sits 
up.  Nerve-currents  are  now  passing  from  the  brain 
to  the  muscles.  Before  school  he  is  full  of  movement ; 
limbs,  fingers,  head,  eyes,  are  all  moving,  owing  to  spon- 
taneous brain-activity.  As  he  stands  in  his  place,  and 
the  teacher  calls  for  attention,  we  see  him  still  and 
quiet  (or  at  least  that  is  desired),  and  the  teacher  tries 
to  control  his  brain-action  under  instruction.  Spon- 
taneous brain-action  will  be  shown  to  be  the  basis 
upon  which  you  work  in  producing  mental  aptitude  ; 
it  must  be  coordinated  or  regulated,  but  so  as  not  to 
destroy  spontaneity. 

Two  circumstances    are    necessary    in    order   that   a 


42  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

nerve-centre  may  produce  action  of  the  muscles  and 
movement, — it  must  be  nourished  by  good  blood,  and 
it  must  receive  some  stimulus.  This  gives  us  the  clue 
as  to  how  we  must  act  upon  the  brain  of  the  child  : 
there  are  two  ways,  —  by  feeding  it  and  by  stimulating 
it  through  the  organs  of  sense.  Brains  do  not  gro.w 
by  feeding  only ;  they  must  be  impressed  or  stimu- 
lated from  without ;  hence  the  importance  of  good 
education  as  an  aid  to  brain-development.  Feeding 
the  child  often  lessens  spontaneous  movements,  when 
they  are  in  excess ;  fresh  air  may  have  a  similar  effect ; 
various  modes  of  stimulating  a  child  through  the  eye 
and  ear  may  control  spontaneous  movements,  but  these 
must  be  used  with  due  caution.  Do  not  stop  a  child's 
movements  unless  you  know  why  you  do  so.  You  should 
no  more  wantonly  arrest  a  child's  movements  with- 
out due  cause  than  throw  a  stone  at  an  animal  without 
cause,  or  destroy  a  flower  because  you  do  not  see  any 
use  in  it.  This  should  be  known  by  those  who  con- 
fine the  hands  and  feet  of  little  infants  under  bulky  and 
cumbersome  clothes.  Children  should  have  their  hands 
free,  and  not  carry  bags  and  books,  and  should  not 
be  compelled  to  stand  in  class  with  their  hands  behind 
them. 

Common  observation  of  a  healthy  young  infant 
shows  abundant  spontaneous  movement  in  all  parts 
of  the  body  while  he  is  awake.  Look  at  a  well-nour- 
ished baby,  say  seven  days  old,  as  he  lies  on  his  nurse's 


THE    BRAIN  43 

lap,  unfettered  by  clothes.  Movements  are  seen  in 
the  limbs,  especially  in  the  fingers  and  toes  ;  the  move- 
ments are  slower  than  most  of  those  seen  in  adults, 
and  are  apparently  spontaneous  and  irregular,  occur- 
ring in  no  special  order,  uncontrolled  by  external  stimu- 
lation, and  are  not  directly  useful  to  the  child.  A  short 
period  of  wakefulness  is,  at  this  early  age,  usually 
followed  by  sleep,  indicated  by  subsidence  of  all  move- 
ments except  those  of  breathing,  and  the  eyelids  are 
closed. 

The  movements  of  the  chest  in  breathing  are  estab- 
lished at  birth,  and  continue  without  interruption.  The 
child  cries  when  cold,  and  when  food  has  been  with- 
held more  than  two  hours.  Contact  of  an  object  with 
the  lips  stimulates  the  movements  of  sucking ;  a  strong 
light  causes  closure  of  the  eyelids ;  and  if  the  eyelid 
be  raised,  the  pupils  are  contracted  by  the  light.  In  an 
infant  a  few  hours  old,  the  attempt  to  straighten  the 
elbow,  when  flexed,  may  be  strongly  resisted. 

Spontaneous  movements  may  likewise  be  seen  in 
young  animals.  Charles  Darwin  has  shown  that  in 
young  seedling  plants  the  root,  the  seedling  leaves,  and 
the  head  of  the  plant  move  much,  as  growth  takes 
place,  though  the  movement  is  slow.  This  is  due  to 
unequal  growth  of  the  cells  of  which  the  young  plant 
is  built  up. 

Spontaneous  movements,  thus  universal  at  birth, 
must    have  some  important  signification ;    they  do  not 


44  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

appear  to  produce  any  direct  effect  upon  the  body  of 
the  infant  and  do  not  supply  him  with  food  or  minister 
to  his  wants. 

Each  movement  seen  corresponds  to  action  in  a 
nerve-centre  of  the  brain ;  the  mass  of  movements  cor- 
responds to  a  mass  of  nerve-centres  in  action.  Further, 
these  movements,  as  far  as  we  can  see,  are  not  at  birth 
controlled  through  the  senses.  We  conclude  that  in 
the  very  young  infant  the  brain-centres  act  separately 
and  independent  of  special  stimulation,  if  he  is  healthy, 
well  made,  and  well  nourished.  It  may  be  said  that  at 
birth  the  infant  does  not  show  the  faculties  of  mind, 
because  we  do  not  see  that  he  is  controlled  through  the 
senses  by  sight  and  by  sound  :  his  hands  do  not  move 
towards  objects  placed  within  his  field  of  vision. 

When  a  month  old,  movements  appear  in  the  face, 
first  about  the  mouth,  later  in  the  forehead.  The 
limbs  move  with  more  force,  they  are  moved  in  a 
greater  degree,  and  begin  to  effect  some  mechanical 
results :  an  object  placed  in  the  hand  is  grasped  by  the 
fingers,  and  movements  of  the  elbow  carry  the  object  to 
the  mouth,  but  soon  spontaneous  movements  return, 
the  fingers  open,  and  the  object  falls  from  the  hand. 

When  the  infant  is  three  months  old,  we  may  observe 

some  control  of  movements  through  the  senses,  and  the 

'  head  may  turn  towards  a  bright  light ;  still  we  do  not 

see  the  hand  move   straight  towards  an  object  Vvrithin 

the   field  of   vision,  and  when    a    part    of   the  body  is 


THE   BRAIN  45 

irritated  the  hand  does  not  move  towards  it.  I  have 
known  a  child  in  whom  one  leg  was  irritated,  and  the 
hand  was  not  moved  to  scratch  it,  but  the  other  leg 
moved  up,  and  did  so  with  the  foot.  Spontaneous 
movement  remains  as  a  marked  character  at  this  age, 
but  sight  of  a  bright  object  may  temporarily  arrest  it ; 
this  is  the  earliest  indication  of  a  brain-faculty  that 
may  develop  into  the  power  of  attention. 

Later  we  see  associated  movements  in  such  an  act, 
as  transferring  an  object  from  one  hand  to  the  other: 
as  the  muscles  grow  stronger  the  head  is  held  up,  when 
the  body  is  supported,  and  the  eyes  are  moved.  At 
four  or  five  months  we  find  commencing  signs  of  im- 
pressionability to  stimulation  through  the  senses;  sound 
and  the  sight  of  objects  begin  to  control  and  regulate 
the  spontaneous  movement. 

At  five  months,  further  indications  of  the  control  of 
brain-action  may  be  seen;  the  sight  of  a  red  box  may 
momentarily  stop  all  movements,  and  this  may  be  fol- 
lowed in  a  few  seconds  by  turning  the  head,  eyes,  and 
hands  towards  the  object  seen  ;  that  is  called  a  coordi- 
nated movement ;  movement  controlled  through  the 
eyes  occurs  after  momentary  arrest  of  spontaneous 
action  in  the  brain. 

At  three  years  of  age  much  change  has  taken  place 
in  the  brain  as  the  body  has  grown  :  the  child  runs  and 
talks  or  chatters.  Spontaneous  movement  continues  to 
a  great  extent,  but  action  controlled  through  the  senses 


46  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

is  established,  complex  actions  are  performed,  an  im- 
pression received  at  one  time  may  be  retained  and  lead 
to  special  action  at  a  later  period. 

Case  12.  A  boy  of  three  years  went  to  sit  on  the  bed 
of  his  mother,  who  was  tired  and  ill.  He  played  with 
some  reins  fastened  to  the  end  of  the  bedstead,  which 
pleased  him  :  next  day  he  said  to  his  mother,  "  You  go 
and  be  nice  ill ;  I  play  horses."  A  brain-impression  had 
been  retained  (memory),  leading  to  his  action. 

I  dwell  on  the  simple  signs  of  brain-action  in  the 
infant,  because  they  seem  to  afford  a  foundation  for 
observation  of  the  more  complex  functions  of  the  brain 
of  the  child,  as  the  processes  of  development  or  evolu- 
tion proceed.  The  infant  at  the  earliest  ages  does  not 
walk  or  talk,  or  turn  his  head  and  eyes  towards  objects ; 
movements  are  not  modified  in  any  marked  degree  by 
the  action  of  light  or  of  sound.  The  infant's  brain  is, 
in  some  respects,  less  impressionable  than  that  of  the 
adult,  and  the  impressions  are  less  retained.  During 
the  early  months  of  infant  life  movements  are  the  only 
signs  of  mental  development.  Compare  the  action 
seen  at  five  months  with  that  seen  at  birth ;  spontane- 
ous movement  continues,  but  is  capable  of  some  control 
through  the  senses.  It  may  be  temporarily  arrested  by 
sight  or  sound,  and  this,  after  many  repetitions,  may  be 
followed  by  new  series  of  movements,  occurring  upon 
less  and  less  stimulation,  and  with  increasing  quickness 
and  accuracy,  as  time  goes  on.     We  infer  a  correspond- 


THE   BRAIN  47 

ing  change  in  the  nerve-centres  or  parts  of  the  brain  : 
it  appears  that,  at  birth,  they  act  slowly  and  inde- 
pendently of  one  another,  as  far  as  we  know  without 
any  order  in  their  acting  —  and,  at  this  time,  this  action 
is  not  determined  through  the  senses.  At  the  age  of 
five  months  movement  may  be  temporarily  suspended, 
and  during  the  time  when  no  (efferent  or  motor)  cur- 
rents are  passing  from  the  nerve-centres,  they  undergo 
some  change,  indicated  subsequently  by  special  combi- 
nations and  series  of  movements,  such  as  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  commencing  voluntary  action. 

This  appears  to  be  a  great  advance  in  the  infant's 
brain-evolution.^  When  a  year  old,  action  well  adapted 
by  impressions  received  becomes  very  marked,  and  the 
child  makes  certain  characteristic  sounds  on  sight  of 
certain  objects;  its  spontaneous  brain-action  becomes 
more  and  more  capable  of  coordination. 

It  appears  that,  whereas  at  birth  the  most  marked 
character  of  the  nerve-centres  is  the  spontaneous  action 
of  individual  loci  of  nerve-tissue,  this  spontaneity  is 
not  lost,  but  remains  in  advancing  evolution  as  the  foun- 
dation of  so-called  voluntary  and  intellectual  action, 
becoming  more  controlled  by  circumstances.  Apti- 
tude for  mental  action  appears  to  depend  upon  the 
capacity  of  nerve-cells  for  control  through  the  senses, 
such  impressions  temporarily  inhibiting  their  spontane- 

1  The  Study  of  Cerebral  Inliihition,  "  r.rain,"  XLIII.,  published  by  The 
Macmillan  Company. 


48  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

ity  and  arranging  them  functionally  for  coordinated 
action.  In  the  imbecile  infant  action  does  not  show 
this  spontaneous  movement  (microkinesis)  in  the  nor- 
mal degree  ;  its  nerve-centres  are  wanting  in  sponta- 
neity, and  later  in  capacity  for  coordination. 

It  is  not  my  intention  here  to  branch  off  into  the 
study  of  physiological  psychology,  but  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible to  follow  the  apparent  grouping  of  action  in 
nerve-cells  corresponding  to  many  well-known  modes 
of  mental  action.  It  may  be  shown  that  well-co- 
ordinated visible  movements  usually  accompany  well- 
controlled  mental  action,  and  that  a  spreading  area 
of  movement,  not  controlled,  often  accompanies  men- 
tal confusion. 

This  spontaneous  movement,  slightly  under  control, 
is  the  character  of  healthy  brain-action  of  children  in 
the  infant  school,  so  that  postures  are  less  available 
as  signs  among  these  very  young  children,  and  spon- 
taneous movement  of  their  fingers  is  the  normal  action. 
The  parts  of  the  infant  are  then  full  of  spontaneous 
movements ;  an  exception  is  in  the  eye  movements, 
which  are  not  frequent  in  many  cases.  One  of  the 
endeavours  of  infant  training  should  be  to  encourage 
eye  movements,  then  to  control  them. 

The  most  interesting  signs  of  brain-condition  are 
those  which  indicate  to  us  the  action  of  mind.  One 
method  of  determining  the  signs  of  mind  is  to  com- 
pare  subjects,  possessed   of  mind,  with  others,  devoid 


THE   BRAIN 


49 


of  mind  or  nearly  so.  It  will  be  granted  that  an 
infant  at  birth  does  not  show  well-marked  signs  of 
mind.  The  principal  signs  of  mind  are  absent.  An 
infant  at  birth  may  be  said  to  possess  none  of  the 
actual  facidties  of  mind,  although  he  is  healthy;  he 
may  possess  potentialities,  but  he  shows  no  actual 
present  signs  of  mind.  An  idiot,  in  growing  up  from 
infancy,  does  not  show  those  signs,  appropriate  to  his 
age,  which  indicate  the  functions  of  mind.  The  infant 
is  said  not  to  show  actual  signs  of  mind,  though  he 
may  show  potentialities.  The  infant  at  birth  does  not 
walk,  talk,  or  turn  his  eyes  and  head  towards  a  bright 
object  within  his  field  of  vision ;  movements  are  not 
modified,  in  any  marked  degree,  by  the  action  of  light 
or  sound,  except  that  the  eyelids  contraq.t  spasmodi- 
cally in  the  light.  The  infant  is,  in  some  respects,  less 
impressionable,  and  the  impressions  are  less  perma- 
nent than  in  the  adult. 

We  say  that  the  new-born  infant  does  not  give  ex- 
pression to  the  faculties  of  mind,  because  he  does  not 
present  signs  showing  that  he  is  impressed,  even 
temporarily,  by  the  sight  of  surrounding  objects ;  he 
does  not  move  his  hands  towards  objects  within  his 
field  of  vision,  and  no  movements  indicate  that  he  is 
impressed  thereby.  Reflexes  of  sight  and  sound  are 
almost  entirely  absent.  The  muscles  of  the  face  are 
seen  to  act  earliest  in  the  lower  zone,  those  about  the 
mouth  causing  expression   before   those   on   the   fore- 


50  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

head  (corrugators),  which  seem  to  be  specially  con- 
nected with  expression  of  mind. 

Now  as  to  the  child  when  four  months  old,  we  say 
that  the  attention  is  easily  attracted,  because  the  sight 
of  objects  and  sounds  causes  the  head  to  be  moved 
(by  reflex  action)  towards  the  light  or  source  of  sound. 
More  than  this,  after  the  stimulus  of  the  sight  of  an 
object  has  caused  the  head  and  eyes  to  be  turned 
towards  the  object,  the  further  stimulation  of  the  brain 
may  arrest  all  movement :  this  often  happens  when 
the  attention  is  attracted.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
sight  of  an  object,  after  it  has  caused  the  head  and 
eyes  to  be  turned  towards  it,  may  increase  the  amount 
of  movement  in  the  child. 

Playfulness  is  probably  the  result  of  spontaneous 
movement,  together  with  an  increased  susceptibility 
to  reflex  action.  The  "  playful  child "  has  a  happy 
face,  owing  to  the  healthy  tone  of  the  facial  muscles 
and  their  nerve-centres. 

The  following  observation  of  a  child  eighteen  months 
old,  illustrates  how  the  dawning  intellectuality  is  indi- 
cated by  the  complication  and  fitness  of  certain  sets 
of  movements :  — 

Case  13.  The  child,  having  both  hands  full  of  toys, 
desired  to  grasp  a  third  ;  he  then  put  the  toy  from  one 
hand  quickly  between  his  knees,  and  thus  set  one  hand 
free  to  take  hold  of  the  desired  object. 

The    following    kinds    of  movements    as    signs    of  a 


TIIK    liRAIX  51 

healthy  infant  brain  deserve  separate  attention :  move- 
ments following^  certain  external  agencies,  light,  sound ; 
movements,  the  outcome  of  the  essential  (untrained) 
properties  of  the  nerve-mechanism  ;  movements  result- 
ing from  (training)  the  acquired  association  of  nerve-cen- 
tres ;  movements,  similar  to  those  previously  occurring 
from  a  like  cause,  showing  retentiveness ;  movements 
in  different  areas,  such  as  the  small  joints  in  contrast 
with  large  joints,  or  a  different  condition  of  movement 
of  adjacent  parts,  such  as  the  fingers.  There  may  also 
be  a  symmetry  of  movements. 


^ 


CHAPTER   IV 

Observing  the  Child  :  What  to  look  at  and 
what  to  look  for 

The  training  of  children  and  the  improvement  in 
methods  of  education  have  become  so  important  that 
there  has  arisen  a  general  demand  for  exact  knowledge 
as  to  the  conditions  of  children  at  home  and  in  the 
school.  It  is  necessary  that  we  should  learn  to  study 
children  in  a  scientific  manner,  that  we  may  know  how 
best  to  train  their  development  in  mind  and  body,  and 
take  our  part  in  aiding  them  to  grow  up  with  a  sound 
constitution  and  full  mental  power. 

The  care  of  all  classes  of  children  is  a  very  respon- 
sible work,  demanding  intelligent  study  and  earnest 
care.  It  is  not  enough  to  study  methods  of  education 
and  school  practice,  the  subjects  to  be  taught  and  the 
methods  of  teaching  them.  Some  knowledge  of  physi- 
ology is  very  useful ;  but  it  is  also  necessary  to  observe 
and  study  the  children  themselves  individually,  and 
collectively  in  groups,  that  we  may  know  their  indi- 
vidual tendencies,  good  and  bad,  and  that  their  ever- 
varying  condition  may  be  at  once  perceived.  We 
should  see  the  signs  of  fatigue  before  exhaustion  and 

52 


OBSEKVINCJ   Tin;   (  IIII.l)  53 

irritability  are  obvious  in  imperfect  lessons  and  bad 
behaviour ;  hence  the  necessity  for  an  intelligent  and 
precise  knowledf^e  of  children  enabling  us  to  detect 
early  signs  of  failure  of  strength  and  to  classify  them 
for  the  purpose  of  study. 

It  seems  to  me  very  desirable,  if  not  essential  to  the 
proper  study  of  children,  that  we  should  form  a  judg- 
ment by  the  signs  which  we  observe,  not  by  the  answers 
to  questions  put  to  the  child  as  to  his  thoughts  and  re- 
specting health.  I  seldom  ask  a  child  if  he  has  a  head- 
ache, but  often  look  for  the  signs  of  healthy  brain  strength 
and  activity  ;  or  of  exhaustion,  and  direct  indications  of 
headache.  Such  observations  may  be  made  by  any  one 
who  is  in  personal  contact  with  children,  by  the  mother 
among  her  children,  or  the  teacher  in  the  schoolroom. 

Let  me  give  a  few  examples.  At  an  elementary  school 
I  visited  the  girls  in  its  highest  standard,  or  grade,  in 
company  with  some  friends,  and  asked  the  teacher  to 
point  out.  unknown  to  the  children,  those  who  gave 
most  trouble.  Among  them  were  two  small,  but  well- 
made  children — the  nerve-system  in  each  was  exhausted. 
Had  this  been  known  by  those  in  authority,  might  not 
these  children  have  been  exempted  from  examination, 
and  the  teacher  from  the  necessity  to  press  them  on, 
though  still  requiring  their  attendance  at  school  ? 

Case  14.  In  a  high-class  school,  a  boy  presented  a 
general  good  development,  but  his  nerve-system  was 
exhausted  ;    he  had    far  too  much  movement,  showing 


54  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

brain  irritability.  The  master  said  he  worked  well,  but 
his  father  often  expressed  his  desire  that  the  lad  might 
do  more  work,  and  rise  in  the  school  quickly ;  the  head- 
master wished  the  same.  Here  is  a  case  where  know- 
ledge of  a  precise  kind,  possessed  by  the  master,  would 
necessarily  put  power  in  his  hands  to  act  for  the  boy's 
real  good.  On  the  other  hand,  where  development  is 
slightly  defective,  but  nutrition  good,  it  is  for  the 
child's  benefit  that  he  should  not  be  excused  from  due 
work,  except  when  knowledge  shows  that  the  work  is 
harmful.  Regular  and  appropriate  work  is  essential  to 
due  brain  development  and  healthy  growth. 

There  are  many  points  of  view  from  which  we  may 
study  children  ;  many  lines  of  thought  which  may  be 
followed.  The  method  I  would  urge  upon  you  is  that 
of  systematic  observation, — that  which  I  want  you  to 
study  is  that  which  you  actually  see,  apart  from  any  in- 
ferences drawn  from  facts :  it  is  essential,  in  scientific 
work,  not  to  confuse  what  you  see  and  what  you  believe 
to  exist.  Let  us  study  the  child  as  we  see  him,  with  the 
best  powers  of  our  mind,  and  careful  earnest  thought. 

To  see  the  child  well  you  need  a  good  light ;  do  not 
touch  him,  but  look  without  stating  your  purpose.  It  is 
desirable  to  prevent  the  child  from  looking  straight  at 
you,  i.e.  at  your  eyes ;  for  this  purpose  fix  the  child's 
eyes  by  telling  him  to  look  at  some  small  object  held  in 
your  hand,  such  as  a  shilling.  Then  you  proceed  to 
observe  the  head  and  the  physiognomy  of  the  individual 


OBSERVINC;    rilK   CHILD  55 

features  and  their  parts,  the  facial  condition  and  expres- 
sion, the  eye-movements  and  other  points  in  action. 

Let  him  hold  out  his  hands  in  front,  with  the  palms 
downwards,  showing  him  the  position  for  a  moment ; 
thus  you  can  see  how  he  responds  to  command  and 
imitates  your  action,  while  you  can  observe  the  points 
described  as  "  nerve-signs,"  indicating  his  brain  status. 
Judging  from  the  various  points  thus  seen,  and  without 
asking  questions  or  speaking  to  the  children,  it  is  easy 
to  group  their  conditions  in  various  classes  thus  :  — 

A.  As  to  Development  of  the  body  and  features. 

B.  As  to  the  Brain  condition  indicated  by  nerve-signs. 

C.  As  to  Nutrition  and  health  of  body. 

Such  observations  may  give  new  knowledge  for  your 
use.  Those  who  acquire  the  most  practical  knowledge 
of  childhood  will,  in  the  end,  acquire  power  and  success 
in  the  work  of  education  and  training. 

Here  is  a  schedule  form  for  use  in  describing  sys- 
tematically what  you  see  in  a  child  :  three  headings,  A, 
B,  C,  group  the  classes  of  points  to  be  looked  for. 

Under  A,  describe  signs  of  development  in  the  sepa- 
rate parts,  and  any  special  characteristics. 

Under  B,  note  nerve-signs  in  parts  of  the  body. 

Under  C,  the  state  of  physical  health  and  nutrition. 

Under  School  Report  the  mental  and  general  char- 
acter is  described  ;  and  in  the  Report  on  the  Child  his 
mental  and  physical  condition  is  briefly  summarised. 


56  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

SCHEDULE  FOR  REPORT  ON  A  SCHOOL 
CHILD 

Nutnber.  Name. 

Age  last  birthday.  Place  in  school. 

A.  Body:  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head. 

Face. 

Ears. 

Nose. 

Palate. 

Growth. 

B.  Nerve-signs :  Postures,  movements,  action. 

Expression. 

General  balance  of  body. 

Expression. 
O.  Oculi. 
Eye-movements. 
Head-balance. 
Hands. 

C.  Physical  health  and  Nutrition. 


School  Report. 


Report  on  Child. 


OBSERVING    THE    CHILD  57 

As  you  look  at  the  child,  bear  in  mind  the  normal  or 
healthy  type  of  development ;  fix  in  your  mind  an  ideal 
of  good  form,  so  that  your  attention  may  be  arrested 
by  the  sight  of  any  point  in  form  or  action  that  is  below 
the   normal. 

Now,  as  to  what  to  look  at :  there  is  each  part  of 
the  body  named  in  the  schedule  and  described  in 
Chapter  II. 

The  Head.  —  Look  at  the  head  full-face,  carrying 
your  eyes  from  ear  to  ear  over  the  top  of  the  head, 
following  its  curve  and  estimating  its  size ;  again  carry 
your  eyes  from  one  ear  to  the  other  in  a  horizontal  line, 
looking  first  at  the  right  ear  and  its  parts,  then  at  the 
right  eye-opening,  the  bridge  of  the  nose,  the  left  eye- 
opening,  and  the  ear.  Looking  at  the  profile,  follow 
the  bridge  of  the  nose  up  the  forehead,  noting  if  it  be 
nearly  vertical,  or  slope  backwards,  then  over  the  curve 
of  the  top  of  the  head  and  down  to  the  nape  of  the 
neck.  You  may  thus  inspect  the  head  in  its  configura- 
tion and  estimate  its  volume  by  inspection.  Place  your 
hand  flat  upon  the  child's  head,  with  your  fingers 
spread,  and  thus  estimate  its  volume  by  feeling  it, 
noticing  its  form  and  any  lumps  or  ridges  of  bone. 
Then,  if  you  think  necessary,  you  can  measure  the  head 
round  with  a  tape.  Measure  carefully  the  greatest  hori- 
zontal circumference  round  the  forehead  :  take  a  trans- 
verse measurement  from  one  ear-opening  to  the  other 
over  the  top  of  the  head ;  and  again  from  the  bridge  of 


58  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

the  nose  over  the  top  of  the  head  to  a  projection  you 
will  feel  at  the  back  of  the  head  just  above  the  nape  of 
the  neck  ;  such  measurements  taken  at  intervals  of  a 
few  months  will  enable  you  to  appreciate  growth  and 
increase  of  volume  of  the  head. 

As  you  look  at  children,  observing  their  form,  you 
will  see  some  with  a  shapely,  well-moulded  head  of  good 
size,  while  others  are  ill-shapen  or  small ;  the  features 
may  be  well-cut  or  defective  in  form. 

Physiognomy  is  defined  by  Lavater  as  "the  art  or 
science  of  discerning  the  character  of  the  mind  from 
the  features  of  the  face."  Such  modes  of  study  in- 
clude notice  of  such  proportions  of  the  head  as  the 
following :  the  height  and  width  of  the  forehead,  or  its 
narrowness  from  temple  to  temple,  and  the  shallow- 
ness from  the  hair  margin  to  the  eyebrows ;  the  great- 
est circumference  of  the  head,  which  is  something 
like  21  inches  at  eight  years  old,  the  measurement 
from  ear  to  ear  over  the  vertex  being  about  12  inches. 
The  greatest  transverse  diameter  of  the  head  in  a 
child  is  behind  the  ears;  and  the  outline  of  face  and 
head  as  seen  full-face  should  give  the  greatest  trans- 
verse diameter  high  up,  well  above  the  cheek-bones 
in  the  part  forming  the  brain-case.  The  facial  angle 
is  seen  best  in  profile. 

In  estimating  the  volume  of  the  head,  first  look  at 
it;  note  its  form,  and  not  solely  the  circumference  or 
other   measurements.     A    further   idea   of    its   volume 


OBSEKVINC;    rilE  CHILD  59 

may  be  gained  by  placing  your  hand  on  the  head 
with  your  fingers  open.  Heads  may  be  too  large  or 
too  small ;  the  forehead  may  present  a  lump  on  each 
side,  or  a  ridge  down  its  centre  ;  it  may  be  shallow 
from  above  downwards,  or  narrow  laterally.  These 
defects  of  the  head  are  of  great  importance,  often 
being  accompanied  with  a  tendency  in  the  child  to 
be  thin,  delicate,  and  dull :  much  depends  upon  how 
he  is  treated  at  home  and  in  school. 

At  every  possible  opportunity  observe  the  outline, 
form,  and  size  of  people's  heads,  i)aying  special  at- 
tention to  the  points  mentioned ;  study  the  physiog- 
nomy of  children  and  persons  known  to  you,  and 
draw  your  own  conclusion  as  to  the  value  of  your 
observations. 

Study  also  well-selected  art  representations  of  the 
human  figure,  in  rest  and  in  action,  and  learn  from 
them  the  rule  of  perfection.  In  some  school-rooms, 
photographs,  engravings,  and  casts  of  the  best  an- 
tique statues  are  to  be  seen.  I  wish  it  were  so  in  all 
cases,  that  we  might  learn  from  those  who  have  long 
observed  the  human  body  what  is  excellent  in  form  and 
outline,  as  well  as  graceful  in  movement  and  attitude. 

The  Face.  —  Looking  at  different  types  of  faces, 
we  are  at  once  struck  with  the  fact  that  the  passive 
appearance  of  some  expresses  intellectuality,  while 
others  are  marked  by  inborn  vulgarity,  apart  from 
any  special  mobile  expression.     Elements  contributing 


6o  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

to  the  low  vulgar  type  are  a  narrow  and  receding 
forehead,  a  large,  prominent  under-jaw,  thick  lips,  and 
a  thick  immobile  make  of  skin.  Such  signs  are, 
however,  not  to  be  trusted  too  far. 

The  features,  separately,  may  be  well  made  with- 
out being  proportioned  to  one  another  or  rising  well 
from  the  surface  of  the  face.  If  the  openings  for 
the  eyes  and  mouth  are  small  in  proportion  to  the 
face,  it  imparts  a  blank  look.  The  size  of  the  jaw- 
bones gives  an  appearance  of  firmness  to  the  physi- 
ognomy, while  either  the  upper  or  lower  jaw-bones 
may  be  too  small.  If  the  upper-jaw  is  too  small,  the 
cheeks  at  this  part  are  too  close  together,  the  palate 
is  often  narrow,  and  the  teeth  overcrowded. 

The  Nose  and  the  Palate  are  very  noteworthy ;  they 
are  described  in  Chapter  II.  As  a  sign  of  develop- 
ment or  make  of  body  the  form  of  the  bony  palate 
is  only  second  to  the  head  in  importance.  The 
mouth  should  be  noted,  when  at  rest,  as  to  its  size.  A 
small  mouth  is  a  defect,  and  often  accompanies  throat 
obstruction  leading  to  mouth-breathing. 

The  Ears  should  be  observed  separately,  noting  their 
size  and  symmetry ;  see  if  they  lie  fairly  against  the 
head  and  that  all  parts  are  present  in  the  ear  as 
they  are  described  in   Chapter  II. 

The  Growth  of  Body  is  estimated  by  the  height  and 
weight  of  the  child  as  compared  with  the  normal  (see 
Table  II.). 


OBSERVING  THE   CHILD  6 1 

Passing  from  the  observation  of  points  indicating 
development  in  the  body,  we  have  to  consider  the 
nerve-signs,  which  indicate  the  make,  status,  and  action 
of  the  brain  and  nerve-system  :  these  are  mainly  post- 
ures or  attitudes  of  the  body  or  action  and  movement  of 
its  parts.  Following  the  sub-headings  of  the  Schedule, 
look  at  the  general  balance  of  the  body,  the  face,  eyes, 
head,  and  hands. 

The  General  Balance  of  the  body  of  the  child,  when 
standing  quietly,  should  be  symmetrical,  equal  on  the 
two  sides,  so  that  the  shoulders  are  at  the  same  level 
and  the  spine  balanced  straight ;  while  the  feet  are 
equally  planted  on  the  ground  with  the  knees  straight. 
When  the  arms  are  held  out  in  front,  symmetry  should 
be  maintained  in  the  equal  height  at  which  they  are 
placed  with  the  elbows  straight :  no  slouching  or  listless 
attitude. 

The  Face  and  Expression.  —  The  human  face  in  its 
expression  and  movements  is  a  most  accurate  index  of 
the  brain  and  of  the  nerve-changes  in  it,  which  corre- 
spond to  the  emotions,  feelings,  and  thoughts. 

When  we  look  at  a  face,  we  may  observe  its  form, 
colour,  and  conditions  of  mobility.  The  general  form 
and  outline  of  the  face  are  largely  determined  by  the 
shape  of  the  skull  beneath.  Either  side  of  the  face  can 
move  separately ;  hence  the  necessity  of  observing 
whether  a  facial  expression  is  symmetrical. 

The  muscles  that  move  the  face  are  sufficiently  ex- 


62  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

plained  in  Chapter  II.  ;  their  action  in  producing  move- 
ment is  caused  by  nerve-currents  coming  to  them  from 
the  brain. 

The  healthy  normal  face  of  a  child  is  calm,  without 
wrinkling  or  puckering  in  the  forehead,  and  is  alike  in 
its  action  and  expression  on  the  two  sides. 

It  is  convenient,  for  the  purpose  of  description,  to 
divide  the  face  into  three  zones ;  the  frontal  above  the 
line  of  the  eyebrows,  with  a  middle  zone  separated  from 
the  lower  by  a  line  at  the  level  of  the  lower  margin  of 
the  orbits. 

To  observe  each  in  turn,  hold  a  sheet  of  paper  with 
one  margin  horizontal,  leaving  the  forehead  above  the 
eyebrows  uncovered — this  shows  the  upper  zone;  next 
view  only  that  part  of  the  face  which  is  below  the  lower 
margin  of  the  orbits,  or  sockets  for  the  eyes,  showing 
the  mouth,  the  greater  part  of  the  cheeks,  and  the 
openings  of  the  nose — this  is  the  lower  zone.  Lastly 
the  middle  zone  may  be  demonstrated  alone  by  holding 
the  horizontal  margin  of  one  sheet  of  paper  so  as  to 
cover  all  above  the  eyebrows,  and  another  sheet  so  as 
to  cover  all  below  the  orbits,  thus  leaving  to  view  the 
eyebrows,  the  eyelids,  and  eyeballs,  with  the  bridge  of 
the  nose.  By  these  methods  you  may  readily  examine 
the  symmetry  of  a  face,  both  as  regards  form  and 
action,  and  you  may  also  define  the  particular  zone  in 
which  any  mode  of  expression  is  seen. 

The  greatest  degree  of  expression  is,  I  think,  seen  in 


OBSERVING  THE  CHILD  63 

the  frontal  region,  mainly  produced  by  action  of  the 
frontal  and  corrugator  muscles. 

In  looking  at  the  mid-zone  of  the  head  and  face,  the 
observer's  eye  traverses  it  from  ear  to  ear,  noting  these 
features,  the  palpebral  fissures,  and  the  tone  of  the  large 
orbicularis  oculi  muscles,  the  bridge  of  the  nose  both  in 
its  bone  and  soft  tissues,  as  well  as  the  eyeballs  and 
their  movements. 

Signs  are  given  for  each  of  the  three  zones. 

There  are  some  special  movements  in  each  of  the 
facial  zones  worthy  of  notice.  In  the  upper  or  frontal 
zone  the  movements  are  almost  always  symmetrical  or 
equal  on  both  sides ;  they  may  produce  horizontal  fur- 
rows, or  vertical  furrows  with  a  drawing  of  the  eye- 
brows together  —  the  former  is  a  movement  not  of  an 
intellectual  kind ;  the  latter  is  often  highly  expressive 
of  mental  action. 

In  the  middle  zone  the  opening  of  the  eyelids  is 
usually  equal  on  either  side ;  we  shall  find  that  in  this 
region  we  may  have  marked  indications  of  exhaustion 
of  brain-action. 

The  parts  in  the  lower  zone  about  the  mouth 
move  in  eating  and  in  speaking.  The  mouth  can  be 
widened,  its  angles  may  be  drawn  upwards  or  down- 
wards, and  the  upper  lip  may  be  raised  at  a  point 
a  little  within  the  angle,  so  as  to  uncover  the  canine 
tooth,  as  in  sneering.  Widening  of  the  mouth  is 
seen   in   laughter,  when   the    angles    are    drawn    some- 


64  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

what  upwards,  so  also,  to  a  less  degree,  in  smiling. 
The  circular  muscle  of  the  mouth  contracts  in  clos- 
ing the  lips,  and  its  action  is  excessive  in  pouting. 

The  Eye-movements  are  of  great  interest.  In  ex- 
amining a  child,  notice  whether  the  eyes  follow  ac- 
curately a  small  object  you  hold  two  or  three  feet 
in  front  of  his  face,  as  you  move  it  from  side  to 
side,  and  up  and  down. 

The  two  eyes  move  together,  so  that,  when  one 
turns  to  the  right,  so  does  the  other ;  or,  when  one 
eye  turns  upwards,  they  both  turn  up  equally.  In 
looking  at  near  objects,  say  at  lo  inches  from  the 
face,  the  eyes  turn  slightly  but  equally  towards  one 
another. 

Movements  of  the  eyes  are  not  equally  common 
in  all  directions  —  more  movements  are  horizontal 
than  vertical;  in  turning  the  eyes  to  the  right  or 
left,  there  is  no  necessary  movement  of  the  eyelids ; 
the  eyes  turn  towards  objects,  their  muscles  being 
stimulated  by  brain-currents  which  are  generated  by 
the  sight  of  objects  around.  In  observing  movements 
of  the  eyes,  notice  whether  they  are  obviously  guided 
by  the  sight  or  sound  of  objects  around,  or  whether 
it  be  not  so.  Movements  of  the  eyes,  not  controlled 
as  to  their  number  and  direction  by  obvious  circum- 
stances, must  be  looked  upon  as  signs  of  nervous- 
ness. Irregular  movements  of  the  eyes  are  common 
in    children,    and   are   very   indicative    of    their   brain- 


OBSERVING   THE   CHILD  6$ 

condition  :  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  analogous  to 
spontaneous  tvvitchings  of  the  fingers.  In  these 
wandering,  irregular  movements  of  the  eyes  we  find 
an  illustration  of  a  common  law,  that  excessive 
movement  is  often  an  indication  of  weakness,  not  of 
strength  ;  the  same  thing  is  seen  in  the  twitching 
movements  of  nervous  children. 

Movements  of  the  eyes  in  the  vertical  direction 
are  accompanied  by  movements  of  the  uj^per  eyelids, 
and  very  often  the  eyes  and  head  move  upwards 
together. 

The  movements  of  the  eyeballs  are  effected  by 
small  muscles  attached  to  the  eye  and  arising  from 
the  wall  of  the  orbit ;  these  small  muscles  are  sup- 
plied by  three  different  pairs  of  brain-nerves.  The 
iris,  or  coloured  portion  of  the  eye,  is  a  muscular 
curtain,  with  an  aperture  in  its  centre  called  the 
pupil,  which  may  enlarge  or  contract.  Light  causes 
the  pupil  to  contract ;  the  pupil  also  contracts,  when 
the  eye  is  looking  at  near  objects,  dilating  when 
looking  into  the  distance.  A  widely  dilated  pupil 
may  indicate  a  state  of  mental  excitement ;  it  is  con- 
tracted in  sleep. 

The  Head,  its  Postures  and  Movements.  —  It  is  con- 
venient, for  the  }nirposes  of  description,  to  speak  of 
three  modes  of  movement  of  the  head :  flexion  and 
extension,  i.e.  bending  forwards  and  backwards,  as  in 
nodding;    rotatiofi  in  a  horizontal  plane,  the  head  re- 

F 


66  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

maining  erect,  but  the  face  turning  to  the  right  or 
the  left  side ;  inclination,  i.e.  lowering  one  or  other 
side  of  the  head,  so  that  the  two  ears  are  not  on 
the  same  level  and  the  eyes  not  in  the  same  hori- 
zontal plane  —  inclination  is  said  to  be  towards  that 
side  on  which  the  ear  is  lowest.  The  only  sym- 
metrical movements  of  the  head  are  those  of  nod- 
ding and  bending  back  the  head.  In  a  strong  and 
healthy  child  the  head  is  held  erect  unless  some- 
thing changes  its  posture.  A  slight  sound  may  cause 
rotation  of  the  head ;  a  slight  condition  of  weakness 
of  the  nerve-centres  is  indicated  by  drooping  of  the 
head.  The  posture  or  balance  of  the  head  may  in- 
dicate the  brain-condition. 

The  simplest  postures  of  the  head  are  those  called 
flexion  and  extension ;  they  involve  equal  action  of 
both  sides  of  the  brain.  The  weight  of  the  head 
makes  it  fall  forward,  if  the  muscles  do  not  hold  it 
up ;  hence,  as  fatigue  comes,  and  passes  on  to  sleep, 
the  head  may  fall  more  and  more  forward,  till  it  is 
bowed  on  the  breast.  This  bowed  position  of  the 
head  indicates  something  about  the  condition  of  the 
brain,  but  the  posture  is  not  solely  caused  by  the 
brain-action.  Do  not  let  children,  when  writing, 
bend  much  over  their  desks — the  face  should  be  as 
nearly  vertical  as  may  be,  and  as  far  as  possible 
removed  from  the  horizontal.  You  may  notice  the 
drooped  head  and  the  stooping  and  spiritless  gait  of 


OBSERVING    liri;   (  UILIJ  dy 

a  tired  man,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  same  in- 
dividual when  rested  and  refreshed.  The  head  is 
seen  firmly  upri<j^ht  in  defiance,  drooping  in  shame, 
and  held  on  one  side  in  nervous  girls. 

The  Hand.  —  The  hand  in  its  balance  and  movement 
is  second  only  to  the  face  in  importance  as  an  index 
of  brain-action.  In  observing  it  for  this  purpose,  the 
hand  should  be  held  out  free  in  front  of  the  body, 
not  engaged  in  holding  anything,  but  simply  balanced, 
as  the  brain  controls  the  muscles.  I  have  described 
eight  typical  hand-postures  :  two  of  these  will  be  given 
among  abnormal  nerve-signs.  When  the  hands  are 
held  out  to  command,  the  average  balance  is  with 
both  upper  extremities  horizontal  on  a  level  with  the 
shoulders,  the  hands  turned  palm  downwards,  the  width 
of  the  chest  apart,  the  elbows  being  quite  straight. 
The  arm  and  the  hand  and  its  parts  being  all  balanced 
in  the  same  plane,  the  palm  of  the  hand  spread  flat, 
and  the  fingers  and  thumb  straight  with  the  palm. 

In  observing  a  child,  I  say  to  him,  "  Put  out  your 
hands  with  the  palms  downwards  and  spread  the 
fingers."  The  movements  and  balance  of  action  in 
the  parts  of  the  arm  can  thus  be  seen  under  favour- 
able circumstances.  A  strong  and  healthy  child,  say 
of  five  years  old  and  upwards,  will  hold  out  his  hands 
fairly  straight  with  the  arm  and  shoulder ;  the  limbs 
may  not  be  held  quite  at  the  same  level — the  left  is 
often  a  little  weaker  and  is  held  a  little  lower  than  the 


68  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

right.  The  typical  sign  of  strength  is  that  the  hand 
be  straight  extended,  as  in  Fig.  5,  the  fingers  straight 
with  the  metacarpal  bones  and  the  forearm  and 
shoulder ;  the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  metacarpus,  straight, 
not  contracted  laterally,  as  in  the  feeble  hand  (see  Fig. 
17);  all  parts   are  in  the  same   horizontal   plane;    the 


Fig.  5.  — Straight  Hand, 

arms  should  be  parallel  to  one  another,  straight  at  the 
elbow  and  both  on  a  level  with  the  shoulder.  A  slight 
deviation  from  this  rather  stiff  and  exactly  balanced 
position  is  not  to  be  considered  necessarily  a  departure 
from  health.  However,  the  posture  above  described  is 
the  standard  of  the  normal,  and  indicates  a  robust,  well- 
balanced  nerve-system. 


CHAPTER  V 

Principles  of  Methods  of  Observing  and  Describ- 
ing Children 

Children  may  be  studied  in  many  ways.  We  may 
read  about  them  and  think  about  them  ;  we  may  study 
the  results  of  their  work  at  school  or  the  methods  by 
which  others  teach  and  train  them.  We  may  study 
books  on  physiology  which  show  how  the  circulation, 
digestion,  and  respiration  are  carried  on.  We  may 
study  the  structure  and  uses  of  the  organs  of  special 
sense,  their  connexion  with  the  brain,  and  how  they 
influence  its  action.  All  such  studies  are  of  value  to 
you ;  still,  there  remains  the  question,  "  How  may  we, 
as  individuals  interested  in  children,  best  study  them 
for  ourselves  ? " 

In  speaking  of  my  own  methods  of  examining  and 
studying  children,  it  is  with  the  full  acknowledgment 
that  other  means  may  be  used ;  but  it  is  my  purpose  to 
speak  of  what  I  have  seen  and  of  the  methods  em- 
ployed in  reporting  on  100,000  children  I  have  had 
opportunities  of  examining  in  168  schools. 

These  methods  I  was  gradually  led  to  systemize  in 
my  own  studies,  and  I  have  used  them  now  for  some 

69 


JO  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

years.  They  are  founded  upon  scientific  and  physio- 
logical principles,  and  necessitate  observing  individual 
children  and  thinking  about  the  facts  observed.  Such 
a  mode  of  study  requires  that  facts  shall  be  observed  by 
you,  recorded  and  thought  over ;  still  be  not  discour- 
aged ;  a  little  steady  practice  will  make  all  easy,  and 
the  effort  will,  I  think,  teach  you  much,  give  pleasant 
study,  and  place  a  real  power  in  your  hands. 

It  will  at  once  be  obvious  that  the  facts  we  are  to 
observe  must  be  physical  facts.  We  cannot  directly 
observe  the  action  of  the  child's  mind  with  our  eyes 
and  ears ;  but  we  can  observe  the  child's  body,  its 
make,  its  movements,  and  the  signs  of  its  nutrition  — 
these  can  be  seen  and  recorded  in  words  ;  they  can  be 
thought  over  and  studied. 

To  observe  children  with  success,  we  must  learn 
what  to  look  at  in  an  individual  child,  and  how  to  de- 
scribe what  we  see.  To  know  how  to  describe  what 
is  seen  is  almost  as  important,  to  our  purposes,  as  to 
know  what  to  look  for.  Such  descriptions  aid  our 
memory ;  they  enable  us  to  compare  observations,  to 
think  about  them,  and  to  see  their  meaning. 

The  outward  appearance  of  the  body  or  the  passive 
expression  has  been  studied  from  ancient  times,  and 
much  has  been  written  on  the  subject.  The  laws  of 
form  and  the  proportions  of  the  body  have  been  laid 
down  by  many  authorities  who  differ  much  among 
themselves.      Such    studies    have    mostly    been    under- 


OBSERVING   AND    DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  7 1 

taken  from  the  philosophical  and  artistic  points  of 
view,  rather  than  as  a  part  of  the  study  of  mental 
physiology. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  physiog- 
nomy that  may  interest  you.  Compare  the  writings  of 
Lavater,  and  those  who  followed  in  his  steps,  with  the 
later  work  of  Sir  Charles  Bell  on  the  "  Philosophy  and 
Anatomy  of  Expression."  The  knowledge  and  the 
methods  of  the  two  authors  differ.  Lavater  described 
the  size  and  form  of  the  head  of  the  man —  he  did  not 
know  the  signs  of  brain-action ;  he  observed  the  im- 
mobile signs  —  we  shall  see  their  significance  presently. 
Sir  Charles  Bell  described  not  only  the  anatomy  of  the 
])rain  and  the  nerve-system,  and  the  muscles  which  pro- 
duce movement;  he  showed  that  the  brain  by  its  action, 
as  it  sits  hidden  from  view  in  the  head,  sends  out  cur- 
rents of  force  to  the  muscles  all  over  the  body,  produ- 
cing those  movements  which  we  call  mobile  expression. 
Bell  showed,  further,  that  currents  are  constantly  pass- 
ing from  the  surface  of  the  body  and  from  the  senses 
up  to  the  brain,  guiding  and  controlling  its  action. 

We  want  to  study  the  signs  of  brain-action.  You  will 
ask.  What  is  the  connexion  between  physiognomy  and 
brain-action .''  As  to  the  size  of  the  head  in  connexion 
with  the  brain,  it  is  certain  that  the  brain  can  be  no 
larger  than  the  bony  case  which  contains  it ;  further, 
the  brain  is  often  badly  made  when  the  head  is 
badly  shapen ;    we    shall  see    more    about  this  further 


72  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

on.  Experience  shows  that,  when  the  head  and  features 
are  badly  shapen,  the  brain  is  often,  but  not  necessarily, 
poorly  developed.  Defect  in  physiognomy  and,  in 
proportion,  of  the  parts  of  the  body,  is  often  associated 
with  mental  dulness,  but  the  occurrence  of  brain-dis- 
orderliness,  indicated  by  abnormal  nerve-signs  (inco- 
ordination), is  a  more  general  and  direct  cause.  It 
should  then  be  an  object,  in  training  children,  to  remove 
their  faulty  nerve-signs  or  irregular  or  bad  modes  of  ac- 
tion in  movements,  which  are  the  direct  indications  of  the 
brain-state.  The  most  important  signs  of  brain-action 
that  we  can  observe  are  the  movements  which  it  pro- 
duces in  the  body.  It  is  by  observing  the  action  and 
attitudes  of  the  child,  that  we  find  means  of  describing 
his  brain-condition.  The  signs  of  brain-action,  and  the 
most  valuable  signs  of  its  condition,  are  the  movements 
and  results  of  the  movements  which  it  produces  in  the 
parts  of  the  body.  It  is  of  great  importance  clearly  to 
understand  the  difference  between  the  two  modes  of 
expression  —  passive  immobile  expression  indicated  by 
the  size  and  proportions  of  the  head  and  other  parts, 
and  the  mobile  expression  or  movement,  which  are  the 
direct  outcome  of  brain-action  upon  the  muscles.  The 
most  important  signs  of  brain-action  are  the  movements, 
and  results  of  the  movements,  which  it  produces,  such 
as  the  postures  and  attitudes  of  the  body,  and  speech  : 
they  are  the  direct  outcome  of  brain-action,  and  can  be 
observed  and  studied  by  all. 


OBSERVING   AND   DKSCRIBIXc;   CHILDREN  73 

When  I  visit  my  country  friend,  he  takes  me  to  his 
stable  and  shows  his  horses,  pointing  out  in  each  cer- 
tain points  of  vakie  for  my  admiration  :  in  his  hunter 
the  height,  sloping  shoulder,  small  head,  well-cut, 
straight  legs,  his  clear  eye  ;  then  he  goes  on  to  show 
the  fine  balance  of  his  head,  and  when  the  horse  is 
exercised,  my  friend  points  out  the  action  seen  in  the 
movements  of  his  limbs :  we  admire  all  these  points  and 
the  well-groomed,  fine,  glossy  coat.  In  the  cart  horse 
we  look  for  more  massive  development  and  strength  of 
limb  and  muscular  growth.  Again,  in  the  farm  he 
shows  his  bullocks,  their  small  horns,  straight  backs, 
short  legs,  while  pointing  with  pride  to  their  fatness. 
In  the  corn-field  he  shows  the  number  of  large  grains 
in  each  ear,  the  length  of  the  straw  and  its  cleanness  : 
all  points  worth  money. 

In  the  nursery  my  friend  shows  me  his  "  fine  young- 
sters," but  does  not  indicate  the  points  of  their  hopeful- 
ness as  well   as  he  did  the  points  in  his  animals. 

In  some  reports  on  schools  we  are  told  the  number 
of  boys  and  girls  in  attendance,  arranged  in  age-groups 
with  the  positions  they  hold  in  school  —  sometimes 
the  boys  are  not  divided  from  the  girls.  More  strictly 
educational  reports  may  indicate  the  number  of  dull, 
backward,  and  neglected  children.  All  such  accounts  of 
childhood  leave  much  to  be  desired  :  we  need  a  census 
of  the  child-population  ;  we  want  to  know  the  children 
as  accurately  as  the  farmer  knows  his  horses,  cattle,  and 


74  THE  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN 

corn.  What  principles,  then,  underHe  the  better  methods 
of  description?  Individuals  must  be  described;  further, 
certain  points  in  the  individual  should  be  described 
which  may  be  compared  in  other  individuals.  Again : 
in  describing  his  horse  the  farmer  drew  attention  to  the 
development  and  growth  of  the  body  in  various  points, 
then  to  his  action  in  different  movements,  as  in  walk- 
ing, trotting,  galloping  ;  he  thus  unconsciously  explained 
something  of  the  action  of  the  animal's  brain  and  nerve- 
system.  These  illustrations  serve  to  show  two  principles 
that  should  be  attended  to  in  observing  children.  Look 
at  their  bodies,  separate  features  and  the  limbs,  as 
explained  in  Chapter  II.,  and  describe  what  is  well  made, 
and  any  badly  made  or  faulty  part. 

The  chapter  on  abnormal  signs  will  help  you  to 
describe  the  defects  in  development  and  in  action  and 
expression. 

Look  also  at  the  movements,  the  parts  moving  and 
the  balance  or  attitudes,  which  indicate  motor  power 
and  strength,  and  express  brain-action. 

The  child  is  part  of  Nature's  work ;  look  at  him  as 
such,  and  study  him  as  you  study  other  living  things. 
In  short,  I  urge  the  scientific  method,  the  methods  of 
physical  science,  in  place  of  relying  on  the  meta- 
physical study  of  mind,  when  new  knowledge  and 
experience  have  to  be  acquired.  I  would  urge  you 
to  the  study  of  brain-action  in  producing  the  display 
of    mind,   and    its   causes,   in   place   of   confining   your 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  75 

attention  to  metaphysical  psychology  :  in  saying  this, 
I  do  not  assume  that  this  is  new  to  you.  The  two 
methods  differ,  I  think,  principally  in  this :  the  psy- 
chologist proceeding  to  deal  with  most  complex  ques- 
tions records  complex  results  (mental  states)  of  com- 
plex causes ;  the  student  of  physical  facts  observes 
only  what  can  be  seen,  reducing  physical  phenomena, 
that  are  complex,  to  their  simplest  elements,  and  notes 
their  antecedents  and  sequents.  The  two  methods  may 
go  side  by  side,  they  need  not  be  considered  as  antag- 
onistic ;  use  such  processes  of  study  as  give  you  the 
best  results. 

When  a  child  is  brought  to  a  doctor  for  advice,  he 
examines  and  observes  him,  he  examines  the  body  of 
the  child  and  its  various  organs,  taking  notes  of  what 
he  sees  and  hears.  He  forms  an  opinion  of  the  pathol- 
ogy or  real  condition  of  the  parts  of  the  body  by 
physical  signs,  then  makes  his  diagnosis,  and,  after 
further  considering  the  physical  antecedents,  which 
have  probably  brought  about  the  conditions  observed, 
he  finally  advises  as  to  treatment.  The  friends  of 
the  child  will  also  demand  a  prognosis,  or  opinion  as 
to  what  is  likely  to  happen  in  the  future :  this  is  often 
what  is  most  urgently  desired. 

We  shall  have  much  to  say  hereafter  about  the 
signs  of  mobile  expression,  but  before  we  pass  away 
from  the  study  of  the  body  in  its  immobile  or  passive 
condition,  a  few  words  may  be  said  as  to  the  means 


']^  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

of  training  the  eye  to  recognise  the  perfect  outline 
and  form,  and  to  observe  any  slight  departures  there- 
from. For  the  purpose  of  training  your  eyes  to  appre- 
ciate perfections  of  form  and  accuracy  of  movement 
and  balance,  so  that  any  deviations  therefrom  may 
be  readily  observed,  use  your  powers  of  observation 
at  every  opportunity,  observe  your  friends  and  ac- 
quaintances and  all  round  you ;  specially  observe  chil- 
dren according  to  the  rules  laid  down ;  try  to  form  a 
general  opinion  in  each  case  whether  they  be  intelli- 
gent and  well-bred  children,  then  describe  their  form 
for  yourselves  as  best  you  can,  and  fix  those  examples 
in  your  memory  that  are  of  high-class  type ;  go  into 
schools  in  poor  districts,  and  study  the  less-well-born 
children.  The  types  of  perfection  of  form  should  be 
seen  in  art  —  they  are  seen  in  much  of  the  antique 
and  in  some  modern  statuary ;  works  of  art  may  thus 
be  useful  to  you.  To  study  perfection  and  beauty  of 
form  you  should  contrast  the  most  perfect  with  the 
least  perfect.  Examples  of  low  development  in  con- 
trast with  more  perfect  productions  will  throw  much 
light  upon  your  studies ;  the  contrast  of  marked  per- 
fection with  imperfection  throws  each  into  greater 
relief  and  prominence.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  we  are 
told,  searched  for  ugliness. 

The  head  and  face  are  parts  of  the  body  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  man,  and  here  we  see  the  greatest 
number  of  those  signs  which  indicate  to  us  the  make 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  -jj 

of  the  individual  and  his  condition.     The  head  and  face 
are  also  easily  observed,  and  very  interesting  to  study. 

When  studying  expression^  in  the  head,  as  in  other 
parts  of  the  body,  we  must  look  to  the  conditions  of 
its  development,  or  size  and  form,  and  also  to  its  move- 
ments and  the  postures  which  result  from  those  move- 
ments. The  title  of  Sir  Charles  Bell's  first  essay'  is: 
"  Of  the  Permanent  Form  of  the  Head  and  Face  in 
contradistinction  to  Expression."  He  goes  on  to  say  : 
"  A  face  may  be  beautiful  in  sleep,  and  a  statue  with- 
out expression  may  be  highly  beautiful  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  expression  may  give  charm  to  a  face  the  most 
ordinary.  Hence  it  appears  that  our  inquiry  divides 
itself  into  the  permanent  form  of  the  head  and  face, 
and  the  motion  of  the  features,  or  the  expression." 
Bell  uses  the  term  "  expression  "  as  confined  to  mobile 
modes  of  expression,  and  carefully  di.stinguishes  be- 
tween them  and  conditions  of  development  indicated 
by  form.  It  seems  probable,  that  the  finer  actions  of 
the  brain,  in  producing  thoughts,  may  be  trained  by 
using  good  works  of  art.  Form  is  probably  more 
effectual  for  this  purpose  than  shading  and  colour. 

The  Signs  of  Nutrition  of  the  body  and  the  brain 
are  of  the  highest  importance  and  interest.  The  first 
point  I  wish  to  insist  on,  is  that  nutrition  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  (i)  form  or  growth,  and  (2)  by  motion  which 
is  due  to  nutrition. 

1  op.  cit.,  p.  21. 


78  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

As  evidence  that  motor  signs,  or  movements  and  the 
results  of  movements,  may  express  nutrition  of  brain, 
let  us  examine  a  few  examples. 

( 1 )  In  an  ill-nourished  infant  spontaneous  movement 
is  much  lessened,  or  the  child  may  lie  almost  motion- 

V  less  instead  of  being  constantly  full  of  movement,  while 
awake.  The  return  of  spontaneous  movement  is  a  sign 
of  the  improved  nutrition. 

(2)  In  a  man  after  a  severe  illness,  such  as  a  fever, 
the  tone  of  the  voice  is  usually  altered  so  that  we  can 
no  longer  recognise  the  individual  by  his  voice ;  this 
motor  sign,  as  well  as  the  worn  countenance,  indicates 
the  man's  lowered  nutrition.  Returning  health  is  shown 
by  the  patient  "  looking  like  himself,"  and  "  recovering 
his  old  voice." 

(3)  In  a  child  seven  years  old  emaciation  and  ill- 
nutrition,  indicated  by  loss  of  weight,  may  be  accom- 
panied by  St.  Vitus's  dance  or  finger  twitching,  which 
disappears  when  weight  increases  and  nutrition  is  im- 
proved. 

(4)  A  strong,  well-nourished  man  is  less  fidgety  than 
a  weak  one. 

Now  as  to  the  expression  of  nutrition  by  form  and 
growth.  Proportions  of  growth  often  indicate  condi- 
tions of  nutrition. 

A  seedling  pea-plant,  if  kept  in  a  room  with  deficient 
light,  is  not  well  nourished,  and  the  malnutrition  is  in- 
dicated by  the  small  yellow  leaves  and  the  long  white 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  79 

Stem.  That  good  nutrition  has  not  occurred  during 
the  life  of  the  plant  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that 
the  plant,  when  dry,  weighs  less  than  the  seed  from 
which  it  grew.  Here  malnutrition  is  expressed  by 
the  relative  growth  of  leaves  and  stem ;  the  leaves 
being  very  small,  the  stem  very  long.  In  children  we 
often  see  growth  for  a  time  occur  in  height  without 
lateral  development ;  then  the  proportions  of  growth 
change,  and  the  child  fattens. 

It  may  possibly  add  some  interest  to  our  work,  if  I 
explain  how  my  attention  became  directed  to  the  study 
of  postures  as  signs  of  brain-conditions.  Having, 
during  some  years,  given  special  study  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  nerve-system  in  children,  I  began  to  note 
the  various  postures  presented  by  children,  brought 
for  examination,  at  the  East  London  Children's  Hos- 
pital, and  from  1878  I  kept  notes  of  the  spontaneous 
postures  observed.  The  children  were  requested  to 
hold  out  their  hands,  and  the  passive  condition  or 
posture  of  the  hand  was  noted.  At  first  it  was  diflfi- 
cult  to  describe  the  posture  seen  in  precise  language, 
though  some  were  seen  to  be  characteristic  of  certain 
nerve-conditions.  In  1879,  while  visiting  Florence, 
it  struck  me  that  the  posture  of  the  hands  of  the 
Venus  de'  Medici  was  exactly  similar  to  the  posture 
I  had  so  often  seen  in  nervous  children.  Later,  at  the 
British  Museum,  I  saw  the  English  Venus  side  by  side 
with  the  Diana  (Fig.  7),  feminine  coyness  and  nervous- 


80  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

ness  represented  side  by  side  with  the  expression  of 
energy  and  strength,  and  the  contrast  of  the  hand- 
posture  showed  them  to  be  in  direct  antithesis.  While 
looking  at  the  marble  hands,  it  became  easy  to  describe 
their  postures  in  precise  language.  In  the  hands  of 
the  nervous  woman  the  wrist  is  slightly  flexed  or  bent, 
the  knuckles  are  moderately  extended  back  beyond  the 
straight  line,  the  finger-joints  being  slightly  bent.  The 
thumb  is  extended  backwards,  and  somewhat  drawn 
away  from  the  fingers.     This  posture  I  have  called  the 


-Nervous  Hand. 

"nervous  hand  "  ;  it  is  that  so  commonly  seen  in  weak, 
excitable,  nervous  children,  such  as  are  hot-tempered 
but  affectionate,  tooth-grinders,  and  very  liable  to  re- 
current headaches.  I  have  before  me  the  cast  of  a 
hand  carved  by  Canova,  an  art  model  of  beautiful 
workmanship.  This  hand  represents  exactly  the  ner- 
vous posture.  Art  often  presents  us  with  the  expres- 
sion of  weakness  in  place  of  strength,  beauty  in  place 
of  perfectness. 

In  the  Diana  of  the  British  Museum  we  seethe  figure 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  8 1 

of  a  strong,  energetic  woman.  Our  common  experience 
tells  us  that  it  is  such.  Her  right  hand  is  lifted,  and  is 
engaged  in  holding  a  spear  or 
dart,  which  she  is  about  to 
hurl  ;  this  hand  is,  therefore, 
not  available  as  a  sign  indi- 
cating the  mental  condition. 
The  left  hand,  however,  hangs 
down,  and  is  free  or  unoccu- 
pied, and  by  its  posture  affords 
us  evidence  of  the  active  or 
mentally  energetic  condition 
of  the  brain.  The  balance  of 
the  parts  of  the  body  indicates 
to  us  the  balance  of  the  action 
of  the  nerve-centres.  This  is 
the  posture  termed  "  the  ener- 
getic hand  "  (Fig.  8). 

The  wrist  is  extended  back- 
wards, the  lingers  and  thumb 
are  flexed. 

If  we  compare  this  ener- 
getic hand  with  the  hand  in 
the    nervous    posture,   we    see    ^^g-  7- -^statue  ok  diana. 

British  Museum. 

the   former   to    be   the    direct 

antithesis  of  the  latter.  In  the  weak  woman  the  hand 
is  flexed  at  the  wrist,  the  fingers  and  thumb  bent  back  at 
the  knuckles ;  in  the  strong  woman  the  wrist  is  extended 

G 


82 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


backwards,  and  the  digits  are  flexed.  This  is  an  exam- 
ple of  one  posture  being  the  antithesis  or  direct  opposite 
of  the  other ;  Mr.  C.  Darwin  made  much  use  of  the 
principle  of  antithesis  in  his  work  on  Expression. 

I  have  described  the  straight  extended  hand  as  the 
normal  type,  and  two  postures  as  deviations  therefrom : 
one,  the  energetic  hand,  a  perfectly  normal  and  health- 
ful condition,  the  other  the  nervous  hand,  which  indicates 
weakness  and  excitability.  An  example  of  the  energetic 
jiand . in  re;al  life  may  often  be,  seen,  in  tbe  attitude, of 


Q 

I 

Fig.  8 

Fig.  8.  —  Energetic  Hand. 

little  children,  say  between  three  and  four  years  old : 
you  call  them  to  come  to  you,  and  show  them  something 
they  like ;  they  run  with  arms  stretched  out  and  hands 
in  the  energetic  posture,  and  wrist  extended,  and  the 
fingers  slightly  flexed. 

An  incident  which  happened  the  other  day  may 
serve  to  illustrate  the  value  of  studying  postures  as 
signs  of  the  nerve-condition.  I  was  asked  to  observe 
some  young  people,  and  noticed  three  in  whom  the 
hands,  when    held    out  free,  showed  the  wrists  flexed 


OBSERVING   AND    DESCRIIJING   CHILURKX  83 

with  the  knuckle-joints  extended  backwards.  I  immedi- 
ately pointed  out  to  the  teacher  that  they  showed  some 
signs  of  nerve-muscular  excitability  ;  the  correctness  of 
this  opinion  I  was  afterwards  able  to  confirm. 

One  of  the  first  departures  from  the  signs  of  per- 
fect strength  is  the  posture  we  are  about  to  describe 
under  the  name  of  the  "straight  hand  with  the  thumb 
drooped."  This  may  commonly  be  observed  in  condi- 
tions of  health,  when  fatigue  or  slight  weakness  occurs. 
It  is  similar  to  the  straight  hand,  but  the  thumb,  with 


Fig.  9.  —  SxRAir.Hr  IIanu  wrrii  Tiiumh  Drooped. 

its  metacarpal  bone,  falls  slightly,  thus  approximating 
the  latter  towards  the  palm.  I  was  once  able  to  point 
out  this  sign  to  the  head-master  of  a  large  school.  I 
had  looked  over  the  lower  classes  of  the  school  without 
noticing  any  unusual  signs  among  the  boys.  When, 
however,  we  came  to  the  first  class,  and  these  boys 
held  out  their  hands,  I  observed  that  every  boy,  with 
two  exceptions,  held  the  hands  straight,  with  the  thumbs 
drooped.  This  class  had  recently  been  engaged  in  their 
annual  examinations. 

If    you    notice   people's    hands,    you    will    often    see 


84 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


that  early  in  the  morning  the  hand  is  held  quite 
straight  while  in  the  latter  part  of  the  day  the 
thumb  tends  to  droop.  In  such  cases,  food,  and  a 
little  rest,  will  usually  restore  the  normal  posture, 
and  this,  the  first  sign  of  fatigue,  will  pass  away. 
This  posture  is,  in  fact,  the  first  stage  towards  the 
feeble  hand,  which   I  shall  soon  describe. 

Figure  lo  shows  the  natural  position  of  the  free 
hand  when  at  rest,  as  it  may  be  seen  hanging  over 
the  side  of  a  chair,  or  lying  in  the  lap.     The  hand,  in 


rest  is  a  natural  position,  with  slight  flexion  of  the 
wrist  and  fingers,  and  slight  arching  of  the  metacarpus 
or  palm  of  the  hand ;  it  is  also  common  in  slight  fatigue 
without  exhaustion,  and  may  be  seen  in  healthy  sleep, 
when  no  energizing  nerve-currents  are  passing  from 
the  brain  to  the  muscles.  If  you  are  in  doubt  as  to 
whether  a  child  is  asleep,  raise  the  arm  by  the  wrist- 
band and  let  the  hand  hang  free;  if  the  child  be 
asleep,  the  hand  will  assume  the  posture  of  rest. 
The  "  feeble  hand  "  is  an  exaggerated  form  of   the 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN 


85 


"hand  in  rest."  The  degree  of  flexion  of  all  parts 
is  greater,  and  the  metacarpus  is  much  arched  or 
contracted.  This  is  seen  in 
conditions  of  exhaustion. 

Two  typical  postures  of 
the  hand  still  remain  to  be 
described.  The  "  hand  in 
fright  "  is  a  posture  not  of- 
ten seen  ;  it  is  a  modification 
of  the  energetic  hand,  the 
wrist  and  fingers  being  all 
extended.  It  is  well  repre- 
sented in  the  statue  of  Cain 
(Fig.  13),  and  in  several  mem- 
bers of   the    Niobe  Group    at 

Florence. 

■.XT,  u-1  J    •  11       F'g-  II— Hand  in  Fright. 

When  a  child  is  convulsed 

by  epilepsy  or  brain  disease,  we  usually  see  the  hand 


Fig.  12.  — Convulsive  Hand. 

clenched  as  a  closed  fist.     The  thumb  is  strongly  fle.xcd 
on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  while  the  fingers  are  closed 


86 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


over  it,  thus  forming  a  closed  fist,  while  the  palm  is 
arched  or  contracted  by  bringing  its  sides  together. 
This    position    is    never    normal,    but    in    a    few   cases 

may  occur  as  a  sim- 
ple matter  of  habit. 
The  convulsive  hand 
may  be  seen  in  a  child 
in  passion,  and  it  some- 
times occurs  during  a 
strong  effort  of  self- 
control  ;  I  have  often 
seen  it  in  people  when 
about  to  have  a  tooth 
drawn. 

The  eight  types  of 
hand  postures  will 
help  you  to  describe 
what  you  see,  but  va- 
rious deviations  from 
these  types  will  often 
occur. 

I  ask  your  attention 
to  signs  which  are  prob- 
ably new  to  you,  indi- 
cating the  brain-con- 
dition of  children;  that  is,  the  study  of  postures  or 
attitudes  of  the  body  and  limbs.  Such  signs  will,  I 
think,  be  most  useful  to  you,  as  they  have  been  to  me, 


Fig-  13- 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  87 

and,  with  a  little  practice,  they  are  easily  observed  and 
described. 

When  the  hand  is  held  out,  the  posture  or  attitude 
seen  is  brought  about  by  the  last  movements  that 
occurred  in  the  parts  of  the  hand.  Postures  are,  so  to 
speak,  stationary  results  of  movement;  the  posture  is 
the  outcome  of  the  balance  of  the  muscles  which  pro- 
duce it ;  and  this  is  the  outcome  of  the  balance  or  ratio 
of  ,  action  in  the  nerve-centres  which  stimulate  the 
muscles  to  contract.  Without  going  into  theoretical 
matters,  let  me  say  that  postures  of  the  parts  of 
the  body  are  important  signs  of  the  brain-state  at 
the  time.  The  postures  you  see  are  most  commonly 
due  to,  and  are  signs  of,  the  condition  of  the  nerve- 
system. 

When  I  began  to  make  the  expression  of  conditions 
of  the  brain  a  definite  study,  I  frequently  looked  at  my 
patients,  especially  the  children,  after  I  had  found  out 
what  their  condition  was,  and  I  noted  down  any  visible 
expression  of  their  nerve-condition.  My  attention  was 
soon  attracted  to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  certain 
postures  of  the  body  indicative  of  conditions  of  the 
nerve-system.  It  is  often  more  easy  to  describe  post- 
ures than  to  describe  movements ;  postures  are  condi- 
tions of  quiescence  ;  they  can  be  watched  during  a  space 
of  time ;  they  can  be  drawn,  photographed,  or  repre- 
-sented  by  casts  in  plaster ;  movements  are  evanescent, 
like  thoughts. 


88  THE   STUDY    OF   CHILDREN 

To  Study  postures  as  signs  of  the  mental  brain-state 
of  the  child,  look  at  his  parts  and  members  when  free 
or  disengaged.  To  observe  the  hand  for  this  purpose, 
it  should  not  be  engaged  in  holding  a  pen,  but  be  free, 
that  all  the  fingers  may  move  as  the  brain  will  move 
them ;  that  the  brain-state,  not  the  pen,  may  govern  the 
posture  of  the  hand.  The  hand  of  a  labourer  ^  is  seen 
engaged  in  digging  with  his  spade ;  his  nerve  muscular 
energy  is  expended  in  holding  and  driving  his  spade. 
It  would,  under  such  circumstances,  require  a  very 
strong  nerve-current  sent  to  those  muscles  to  alter  this 
forcible  brain-stimulus.  Hence,  the  hand  while  en- 
gaged in  digging,  is  not  very  impressionable  and 
expressive  of  the  finer  motor  actions  of  the  nerve- 
mechanism.  When  the  man  puts  aside  his  spade  and 
talks,  especially  if  at  rest,  his  hand  gesticulates  and 
expresses  his  emotions.  The  hand  may  be  said  to  be 
free  when  it  is  held  out  at  the  word  of  command,  when 
hanging  over  the  arm  of  a  chair,  or  when  it  is  moving 
towards  an  object. 

The  face  may  usually  be  considered  free  to  be  acted 
on  only  by  the  brain,  except  when  eating.  When  a 
strong  cold  wind  blows  on  the  face,  it  is  too  strongly 
stimulated  thereby,  to  be  very  impressionable  to  force 
originating  in  the  brain.  The  eyes  are  free  when  not 
strongly  stimulated  by  the  sight  of  some  object,  or 
bright  light  or  colour. 

^  See  "  Physical  Expression,"  p.  144. 


OBSERVING   AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  89 

In  examininf:^  niovement  and  balance,  it  is  desirable 
that  you  should  use  the  same  word  of  command,  the 
same  stimulus  to  action,  on  all  occasions.  This  action 
of  the  child  is  convenient,  leaving  the  arms  and  hands 
free,  and  ready  for  your  observation  and  description. 
It  is  desirable  that  the  upper  extremities,  when  thus 
under  observation,  should  be  free  and  unoccupied;  they 
must  not  be  engaged  in  doing  anything.  If  I  hold  a 
lump  of  chalk  in  my  hand,  it  is  not  free  to  express  the 
condition  of  the  brain.  Clasping  the  hand  on  the  chalk 
is  partly  a  reflex  act,  following  the  pressure  of  the 
chalk ;  only  in  part  is  it  due  to  the  direct  action  of  the 
brain  upon  the  muscles  of  the  limb. 

If  you  see  the  hand  of  the  child  thus  occupied,  and 
you  wish  to  observe  it  as  a  sign  of  brain-condition ; 
either  cause  the  hand  to  drop  what  it  holds,  or  wait  and 
watch  for  the  favourable  opportunity  for  your  observa- 
tions when  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  child  shall  set 
the  hand  free.  The  hand  may  be  free  when  passing  to 
reach  an  object,  not  so  when  it  has  seized  it ;  it  may  be 
free  when  hanging  over  the  arm  of  a  chair,  less  so 
when  resting  on  the  table. 

Looking  at  a  body  of  children,  say  in  the  third  or 
fourth  standard,  or  grade,  of  a  primary  school,  you  will 
see,  perhaps,  five  or  ten  per  cent  of  them  who  do  not 
present  this  perfect  balance  and  typical  posture.  The 
appearance  of  certain  deviations  from  this  standard  of 
the  normal  marks  the  child  to  me  at  once  as  probably 


90  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

nervous,  excitable,  or  exhausted.  The  observation  of 
certain  groups  or  signs  tells  us  something  of  the  char- 
acter or  kind  of  child  and  his  tendencies.  It  may  be  a 
matter  of  interest  and  importance  to  those  responsible 
for  children  to  look  at  them,  study  them,  and  observe 
the  presence  of  signs  which  indicate  their  present  con- 
dition and  probable  tendencies  in  future  development. 

In  observing  movements  as  signs  of  brain-action,  and 
in  describing  them,  it  is  most  important  to  note  the 
parts  moving.  Movements  may  be  seen  principally  in 
the  digits,  more  in  these  small  parts  than  in  larger 
parts,  such  as  the  elbow  and  shoulder ;  they  may  be 
seen  principally  in  the  muscles  about  the  mouth,  or  in 
certain  other  parts  about  the  face.  (  In  any  case,  the 
movement  of  a  part  corresponds  to  action  in  a  certain 
group  of  nerve-cells  corresponding.  ;  Remember  this 
physiological  fact,  —  it  is  the  basis  of  much  that  is 
important  in  the  management  of  children.  One  series 
of  movements  long  continued  means  long  continued 
action  of  one  portion  of  brain ;  change  the  action  of  the 
child,  and  you  thereby  change  the  portion  of  brain 
acting;  thus  you  may  help  to  avoid  fatigue  and 
exhaustion. 

I  spoke  just  now  of  movements  of  small  parts  of 
the  body  in  contrast  to  movements  of  large  parts.  The 
fine  movements  of  small  parts  more  directly  indicate 
brain-action ;  these  should  not  only  be  carefully  de- 
scribed by    the    observer,    but    also    cultivated    by   the 


OBSERVING    AND   DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  9 1 

teacher  as  in  paper  cutting,  folding  and  similar  occu- 
pations. I  think  the  same  kind  of  brain  culture  may 
be  given  by  calisthenic  exercises,  which  should  be 
arranged  not  only  to  strengthen  large  muscles,  but 
also  to  develop  slight  and  independent  movements  of 
small  parts  of  the  body  and  the  ready  action  of  small 
portions  of  brain  produced  by  imitation  of  your  move- 
ments. 

Looking  at  the  arms  of  the  child,  observe  the  hands, 
wrists,  elbows,  shoulders  on  either  side ;  look  not  only 
to  the  postures,  but  also  to  the  movements.  Postures 
and  movements  may  be  alike  on  either  side,  or  they 
may  be  asymmetrical  ;  you  will  find  it  not  uncommon 
to  have  several  signs  of  weakness  on  the  same  side  of 
the  body.  When  the  two  sides  of  the  body  do  not 
move  alike,  it  is  commonly  due  to  the  diminished  force 
or  energy  of  brain,  as  seen  in  a  tired  child  who  leans 
on  a  table  or  chair. 

Asymmetry  of  the  postures  of  the  body  is  usually 
accompanied  by  a  slight  tendency  to  lateral  curvature 
of  the  spine.  Postures  of  the  spine  are  well  worthy  of 
study.  As  I  have  shown  you,  the  spine  is  a  column 
composed  of  many  small  bones,  and  is  capable  of  being 
bent  in  various  directions.  Lateral  curvature  of  the 
spine  may  be  suspected  if  a  child  when  at  work  con- 
stantly bends  to  one  side,  making  one  shoulder  higher 
than  the  other.  This  may  be  due  to  weakness,  and 
may    be    accompanied   by    finger   twitching  and    weak 


92 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


hand  postures  unequal  on  the  two  sides.  Stooping,  or 
lateral  bending  of  the  spine,  may  be  due  to  short  sight 
or  other  eye  defects,  which  should  be  looked  for  in 
such  cases.  When  you  notice  a  child  bending  over  his 
work,  get  the  test-type  and  examine  him  for  short  sight. 

We  have  spoken  of  certain  postures  of  the  hand  as 
being  the  opposite  or  antithesis  of  one  another,  and 
as  representing  opposite  states  of  the  nerve-system. 
We  saw  that  the  "  nervous  hand  "  was  a  posture  the 
very  opposite  of  that  called  the  "  energetic  hand,"  and 
that  these  postures  represent  very  different  brain- 
states  ;  so  with  regard  to  the  head,  flexion  or  drooping 
indicates  conditions  the  opposite  of  those  expressed  by 
extension  or  throwing  backwards  of  the  head. 

The  principles  employed  for  the  classification  of 
movements  are  interesting  not  only  as  affording  means 
of  grouping  many  of  the  nerve-signs  which  you  observe, 
but  also  in  understanding  the  brain-action  correspond- 
ing to  what  you  see,  and  the  brain-changes  accompa- 
nying the  emotions  and  other  mental  states,  while  they 
may  help  you  in  economising  the  child's  nerve-force 
and  preventing  brain-fatigue. 

We  may  class  the  movements  we  see  as  to  their 
cause  or  according  to  what  we  think  produced  the 
action.  Some  movements  are  directly  produced  by  and 
follow  some  stimulation  from  without.  When  the  child 
is  shown  an  object,  his  head,  eyes,  and  hands  move  in 
that  direction  as  he  takes  it ;  sight  regulates  his  move- 


OBSERVING   AND    DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  93 

ments,  so  when  you  call  him  he  runs  to  you,  stimulated 
by  the  sound  of  your  voice  which  controls  him.  Typi- 
cal examples  of  movements  stimulated  by  impressions 
from  outside  the  body,  are  seen  in  what  the  physiolo- 
gist calls  reflex  actions.  When  the  eyeball  is  touched, 
a  stimulus  is  sent  to  the  nerve-centre  with  the  result 
that  a  nerve-current  is  quickly  sent  back  from  the 
nerve-cells  to  the  muscles  closing  the  eyes. 

On  the  other  hand,  movements  are  often  observed 
without  any  known  circumstances  stimulating  them ; 
such  are  seen  in  the  sjiontaneous  movements  of  the 
infant  and  in  the  uncontrolled  movements  of  the  eyes 
and  the  finger  twitches  of  fidgety  children.  Sponta- 
neous movements  are  the  chief  characteristic  of  the 
condition   called  chorea. 

We  may,  however,  observe  the  characters  of  a  move- 
ment itself  apart  from  other  circumstances.  Looking 
at  the  face  of  a  child,  you  may  see  the  muscles  in  the 
forehead  (frontals)  working  up  and  down  making  hori- 
zontal puckerings  —  a  uniformly  repeated,  uncontrolled, 
senseless  action  ;  or  again  they  may  act  momentarily, 
this  may  indicate  a  passing  thought  or  feeling.  Some 
children  acquire  "  habits,"  such  as  holding  the  back  of 
one  hand  to  the  forehead,  or  twisting  one  hand  in  a 
peculiar  way  again  and  again,  or  shrugging  one 
shoulder,  or  turning  the  head,  etc.  Many  foolish- 
looking  habits  in  children  consist  in  such  uniformly 
repeated  acts. 


94  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

When  action  in  several  parts  is  observed,  we  have  a 
combination  and  scries  of  combinations  of  acts,  making 
up  a  complex  phenomenon ;  such  series  may  be  classi- 
fied as  follows,  and  the  nerve-action  corresponding  may 
be  indicated  : 

1.  Uniformly  repeated  series  of  acts. 

As  when  all  the  fingers  are  opened  and  closed  to- 
gether again  and  again.  Here  the  same  nerve-centres 
habitually  act  together. 

2.  Augmenting  series  of  acts. 

A  spreading  series  of  movements,  corresponding  to 
a  spreading  area  of  nerve-action  may  be  seen  in  a 
spreading  smile  or  facial  expression,  or  a  burst  of 
laughter,  and  in  the  march  of  movement  as  from  face 
to  head  and  hand  —  in  protrusion  of  the  tongue  on  any 
stimulation ;  in  the  head  held  on  one  side  when  any 
question  is  asked,  and  in  the  fidgety  fingers  of  the 
examinee.  Such  spreading  action  is  antithetical  to 
good  intellectual  function. 

This  is  much  seen  in  the  expression  of  emotion  and 
in  mental  excitment  and  confusion  :  it  corresponds 
to  a  wide  area  of  brain  in  useless  over-action  and  is 
exhausting. 

3.  A  diminishing  series  of  acts. 

A  diminishing  series  of  acts  with  lessening  of  the 
area  of  motor  cells  in  activity  is  seen  in  the  child  who 
is  getting  quieter  after  some  excitement. 

4.  A  series  of  acts  adapted  by  circumstances. 


OBSERVING   AND    DESCRIBING   CHILDREN  95 

In  action  adapted  by  circumstance,  we  have  a  high- 
class  function  commonly  called  coordinate  action,  and 
if  the  coordinating  conditions  were  some  time  ante- 
cedent, the  action  is  considered  more  strictly  mental  in 
character. 

Brain-action  thus  fully  controlled  or  coordinated  is 
an  economy  of  power,  the  force  expended  is  adapted 
in  its  action  by  the  environment  and  therefore  probably 
in  harmony  with  it. 

A  spreading  area  of  brain  in  over-action  is  seen  in 
stammering;  here  the  spasm,  accompanying  and  caus- 
ing the  defect  of  speech,  may  be  seen  to  commence  in 
the  muscles  of  the  face  about  the  angles  of  the  mouth, 
in  depression  of  the  lov/er  jaw,  or  in  knitting  of  the 
eyebrows.  Then  the  tongue  is  thrown  into  spasm,  and, 
it  may  be,  the  muscles  of  respiration  as  well.  The 
march  of  the  spasm  should  be  noticed  ;  it  usually  recurs 
in  the  same  order.  On  the  first  indication  of  visible 
spasm,  which  usually  precedes  the  sound  of  the  stam- 
mer, the  child  should  be  stopped  in  his  effort  to  speak. 
Most  of  the  children  who  stammer  are  boys. 

A  spreading  area  of  movement  may  be  healthy,  as 
the  resumption  of  spontaneity  of  action  all  over  the 
body  when  children  are  let  out  to  play  ;  but  such 
usually  removes,  for  the  time,  the  previous  order  or 
method  of  mental  action.  Laughter  is  another  example 
of  a  spreading  area  of  motor  brain-action  ;  it  is  apt  to 
remove  a  line  of  thought.     Could    }ou  induce  the  ex- 


g6  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

pression  of  joy  and  laughter  in  the  boy  in  the  first  stage 
of  anger, —  say  by  imitation  of  you  or  of  the  other  chil- 
dren,—  much  might  be  done  to  improve  his  mental 
status. 

I  think  it  must  be  evident  from  what  has  been  said, 
that  in  many  instances  it  is  quite  possible  to  observe 
the  motor  signs  expressing  mental  states,  and  to  deduce 
therefrom  the  modes  of  brain-action  corresponding  to 
such  mental  attitudes.  I  have  not  space  to  follow  out 
this  subject  here. 

If  you  succeed  by  your  personal  skill  in  improving 
the  expression  of  the  child  in  his  movement  and  action, 
you  have  succeeded  to  some  extent,  at  least,  in  improv- 
ing his  brain,  removing  its  disorderliness,  increasing 
thereby  mental  and  moral  aptitude.  Training,  adapted 
to  such  purpose,  differs  from  many  of  the  modes  of 
physical  training  commonly  employed  in  schools.  To 
improve  the  action  of  the  child's  brain  by  physical 
exercises,  he  should  be  trained  rather  by  his  sight  in 
imitation  of  the  teacher's  movements,  than  by  drill 
conducted  by  the  word  of  command  or  by  music. 
Marching  and  exercises  with  dumb-bells,  poles,  or 
clubs,  as  well  as  with  the  closed  fists,  are  very  useful 
means  of  increasing  muscular  power  and  improving 
the  che.st.  To  coordinate  or  regulate  the  brain  by 
physical  training,  "  free  exercises  "  are  needed.  There 
should  be  nothing  in  the  hands  as  they  move. 


CHAPTER   VI 

Points  for  Observation,  indicating  Faults  in 
Body  or  Brain-Action,  or  a  Status  below  the 
Normal 

In  Chapter  IV.,  I  referred  to  the  parts  of  the  child 
you  should  look  at,  and  described  what  to  look  for 
among  normal  signs ;  giving  a  schedule  to  assist  your 
description.  While  looking  at  each  part  and  the  action 
and  movement,  faulty  signs  may  be  seen  ;  these  should 
be  described  verbally  on  that  schedule,  or  they  may  be 
recorded  conveniently  on  the  subjoined  form  of  card. 

In.the  card,  the  main  classes  of  defect  are  printed,  viz.  : 
A.  Development  Defects.  B.  Nerve-signs.  C.  Nutri- 
tion (defective).     D.    Dull. 

As  points  among  development  defects  we  have 
(i)  Cranium  or  head,  and  the  sub-classes  of  type  of 
defect  of  head,  (ii)  External  ear.  (12)  Epicanthis. 
(13)  Palate,  and  its  sub-classes  of  type  of  defect. 

As  points  among  nerve-signs  we  have  (43)  General 
balance;  action  in  the  face  (44-48);  also,  movements 
of  the  eyes ;  balance  of  the  head  and  the  hands,  etc. 

The  more  common  faults  in  body  or  in  brain  action 
are  those  briefly  indicated  on  the  card  with  a  reference 
H  97 


98  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

number,  referring  to  detaikd  description  of  the  sign, 
given  below. 

The  card  is  intended  for  use  in  describing  a  child 
presenting  any  bodily  or  brain  faults  seen ;  it  is  con- 
venient for  reference  —  the  points  seen  to  be  faulty 
being  indicated  quickly  by  passing  the  pen  through 
the  names  of  the  defects  present.  At  the  right-hand 
lower  corner  of  the  card  is  a  formulated  epitome 
ABCD  EFG  on  which  the  main  classes  of  defect 
present  in  the  child  may  be  recorded  by  passing  the 
pen  through  the  symbols  corresponding. 

Description  of  these  faults  or  defects  will  now  be 
given  (p.  99). 

Points  for  Observation  describing  Faults  or  Defect  in 
Body  or  Brain  Status. 

The  principal  signs  of  defect  are  here  described,  with 
remarks  as  to  their  significance.  The  numbers  refer  to 
the  card. 

A.  Defects  in  Development.  —  The  term  includes  any 
point  of  defect  in  the  form,  proportion,  or  size  of  the 
body  and  its  parts,  or  the  absence  of  any  part. 

{a  i)  Cranium  Defective  includes  any  defect  in  size, 
form,  proportion  of  the  head.  At  seven  years  the  head 
should  measure  20  inches  in  circumference.  Of  all 
defects  in  development  those  of  the  cranium  or  head 
appear  to  be  the  most  important,  having  the  closest 
relation  with  other  kinds  of  defect.  The  size  and  the 
probable  volume  of  the  brain  is  a  point  of  first-class 


POINTS    VOR   or.Sl.KNAl  ION 


99 


Sr/uW Can/  No. 

St' A\'g.  No.  . 

Age 


Development  Defects 

1  CUANIUM 

2  Large 

3  Small 

4  Bossed 

5  Forehead 

6  Frontal  ridge 


47  O.  oculi  lax 

48  Eye-movements 

49  Head-balance 

50  Hand  weak 

51  Hand  nervous 

52  Finger  twitches 

53  Lordosis 

h  54     Otheu  Nkuve-signs 


/)   II  External  Ear 

(•     12  EriCANTHIS 

d   13  Palate 

14  Narrow 

15  V-shaped 
l(i        Arched 

17  ("left 

18  Other  types 
e    19  Nasal  Hones 

/  20  Growth  Small 

a  21  Othei{  Develmt.  Dits. 


C  NuTurnoN 

D  Dill 

E  Eye-cases 

Squint 
Glasses  plus 
Glasses  minus 
Myopia,  no  glasses 
Cornea  disease 
Eye,  lost  accident 
Eye,  lost  disease 


64 
65 
60 
67 


70 


Nerve-signs 

43  General  balance 

44  Expression 

45  Fronlals  overact 
40        Corrugation 


F  KiCKETS 

C  KxcEi'TiONAL  Children 

/   82     Cripples 

A  B  C  D    E  F    G 


100  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

importance,  and  the  size  of  the  head  is,  in  children,  a 
fair  indication  of  the  size  of  the  brain. 

It  also  appears  that  defects  in  the  form  of  the  head 
are  often  accompanied  with  weakness  or  lessened  brain- 
power. Defects  of  the  cranium  are  divided  into  sub- 
classes. 

(a  2)  Cranium  Large.  —  A  head  of  22  inches  circumfer- 
ence or  over  is  large  in  a  school  child  ;  allowance  must 
be  made  for  age.  Large  heads  are  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  the  signs  of  rickets. 

{a  3)  Cranium  Small.  —  The  point  of  size  of  head  is 
recorded  as  apart  from  the  size  of  the  child  for  its  age. 
The  volume  is  estimated  in  relation  to  the  normal  for 
age.  This  is  determined  by  inspection,  by  the  open 
hand  placed  upon  the  head,  and  by  the  measuring 
tape.  A  head  with  a  circumference  over  20  inches 
at  any  school  age  is  not  registered  as  small ;  usually  the 
small  heads  are  18  to  19.]  inches  circumference.  Small 
head  is  noted  independent  of  stature. 

In  this  group,  contrary  to  the  usual  rule,  the  defect  is 
more  common  among  girls.  If  there  be  no  other  defect, 
mental  faculty  may  be  average,  but  the  child  usually 
remains  thin  and  delicate ;  such  children  may,  in  after 
life  undertake  good  work  and  do  it,  but  are  more  liable 
than  others  to  exhaustion,  headaches,  and  breakdown  of 
the  nerve-system.  At  school  these  children  are  often 
delicate  and  irregular  in  attendance  for  ailments. 

{a  4)   Cranium  Bossed.  • —  There  may  be  bosses,  pro- 


POINTS   FOR   OBSERVATION  1 01 

tubcranccs,  or  outgrowths  of  bone  on  the  two  halves  of 
the  forehead  or  elsewhere.  These  are  usually  alike  on 
the  two  sides,  but  not  always.  These  bosses  are  j)roba- 
bly  largely  due  to  rickets  ;  were  all  possible  means 
adopted  for  the  prevention  of  rickets,  we  should  proba- 
bly have  fewer  children  with  cranial  abnormalities  and 
dull  brains. 

(c?  5 )  Forehead  Defective.  —  The  forehead  may  be  nar- 
row, shallow  in  vertical  measurement,  or  small  in  all 
dimensions  ;  it  may  bulge  forward  and  overhang.  All 
defects  of  the  forehead,  except  "bosses"  and  "frontal 
ridge  "  {a  4,  a  6)  are  here  included. 

{a  6)  Frontal  Ridge. —  There  may  be  a  bony  ridge 
projecting  vertically  under  the  skin  down  the  middle  of 
the  forehead.  This  sign  is  not  very  important,  unless 
accompanied  by  a  narrow  and  shallow  forehead. 

All  these  forms  of  defect  of  cranium  are  much  more 
common  among  boys  than  girls,  except  the  small  head, 
which  occurs  mostly  among  girls  in  towns.  Other  less 
frequent  types  of  defect  of  cranium  are  omitted  as  being 
of  only  medical  importance. 

(<^  1 1 )  External  Ear  may  be  defective  in  its  parts,  size, 
and  form.  The  ear  may  be  outstanding  and  large, 
with  great  convexity  behind,  and  the  pleat  of  the  ear 
(antehelix)  may  be  absent  as  well  as  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  curled  rim  of  the  ear ;  the  skin  over  the  ear  may 
be  coarse,  red,  and  liable  to  chilblains  in  the  winter. 
The  ears  may  not  be  both  alike ;  the  lobe  of  the  ear 


102  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

may  be  adherent  to  the  face  in  place  of  drooping. 
Such  defects  have  no  necessary  connection  with  dull 
hearing.  Defective  ears  are  much  more  frequently 
seen  in  boys  than  in  girls. 

{c  12)  Eyelids  with  Epicanthis. — The  epicanthis  is 
a  fold  of  skin  continuous  with  the  lower  fold  of  the 
upper  eyelid  (not  a  fold  of  mucous  membrane)  placed 
across  the  inner  angle  of  the  opening  of  the  eyelids; 
it  may  be  asymmetrical. 

{d  IT))  Defective  Condition  of  Palate.  —  Defect  of  the 
palate,  though  less  frequent  than  that  of  the  cranium, 
stands  next  to  it,  as  being  of  the  greatest  importance. 

The  principal  defects  of  palate  are  in  its  propor- 
tions as  seen  in  the  horizontal  or  vertical  plane. 
Without  being  otherwise  altered  the  palate  may  be 
contracted  laterally  or  narrow.  The  V-shaped  palate 
is  pointed  more  or  less  sharply  at  its  anterior  ex- 
tremity, the  lines  of  the  upper  jaw  being  nearly 
straight,  meeting  anteriorly  at  an  acute  angle.  The 
high-arched  or  vaulted  palate  deviates  from  the  normal 
in  the  vertical  plane. 

{d  14)  Palate  Narrow. — Without  being  otherwise 
altered,  the  palate  may  be  contracted  laterally  in  the 
space  between  the  teeth. 

(d  15)  V-shaped  Palate.  —  Pointed  more  or  less 
sharply  at  its  anterior  extremity,  the  lines  of  the 
upper  jaw  being  nearly  straight  lines,  meeting  at 
their  extremities  at  an  acute  angle. 


POINTS   FOR   OIJSERVATION  IO3 

{d  16)  Palate  Arched  or  Vaulted,  thus  deviating  from 
the   normal   in   the  vertical   plane  with   a  high   roof. 

{d  17)  Palate  Cleft. — A  deformity  which  may  affect 
the  hard  and  the  soft  palate. 

{e  19)  Nasal  Bones  wide,  sunken,  or  indented.  The 
bony  bridge  of  the  nose  may  be  thus  ill-shapen  and 
depressed.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  in- 
fant the  bony  part  of  the  nose  projects  but  little  and 
does  not  grow  out  prominently,  till  three  or  four  years 
old.  When  the  deformity  exists,  it  may  be  accom- 
panied by  obstruction  in  the  throat  or  nose,  and  deaf- 
ness. 

(2)  Growth  Small.  —  Children  short  and  small  in 
build  for  their  age  or  dwarfed.  The  stature  of  the 
child  should  be  observed  as  apart  from  the  size  of 
the  head :  the  head  may  be  small,  and  the  child  tall, 
or  vice  versa.     See  Table  II.  as  to  normal  height. 

The  relations  of  this  condition  appear  to  indicate 
that  small  grown  children  are  at  a  disadvantage. 
Many  of  the  children  with  small  heads  are  small  in 
growth  also,  but  the  number  of  children  with  small 
heads  is  much  larger  than  the  number  with  small 
growth.  This  is  an  example  where  normal  propor- 
tion in  the  body  is  not  to  the  child's  advantage ;  the 
small  child  is  probably  better  fitted  for  after  life, 
when  his  head  is  full  sized. 

Some  of  these  small  grown  children  are  badly  grown 
as  the  result  of  rickets. 


104  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

(21)  Other  Development  Defects  includes  points  not 
printed  on  the  card ;  the  more  important  of  them  are 
described  below. 

(26)  Face  Small.  —  The  face  as  a  whole  may  be 
small,  including  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  that 
independent  of  the  size  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
head,  which  contains  the  brain. 

(27)  Features  Coarse,  Heavy,  Flat.  — The  features  may 
be  large  and  ill-proportioned.  The  separate  features 
may  not  be  individually  malformed,  but  dispropor- 
tionate one  to  another  or  to  the  size  of  the  face : 
thus  the  nose  may  be  small  ;  the  face  large,  round, 
flat,  the  features  rising  from  the  plane  of  the  face ; 
the  lips  may  be  thick  and   protuberant. 

(28)  Forehead  Hairy.  —  The  forehead  may  be  covered 
with  fine  downy  hair ;  the  hairy  scalp  may  join  the 
outer  extremities  of  the  eyebrows. 

(30)  Hands  Blue  and  Cold. — This  may  be  seen  in 
some  children,  even  in  the  summer ;  it  is  commonly 
associated  with  defectiveness. 

(34)  Mouth  Small.  —  The  mouth  as  seen  when  at 
rest,  may  be  too  small ;  this  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  obstruction  of  nose  or  throat  with  deafness. 

(39)  Eye  Openings  Defective  in  size  or  form.  The 
eyelids  may  be  small,  as  well  as  the  openings  between 
them,  both  in  their  vertical  and  transverse  measure- 
ments. In  some  cases  the  opening  is  not  symmetri- 
cal, being  wider  on  the   inner   than  on  its  outer    half. 


POINTS   FOR   OBSERVATION  10$ 

The  transverse  axis  may  slope  outwards  and  up- 
wards, or  outwards  and  downwards,  instead  of  being 
horizontal. 

li.  Abnormal  Nerve-signs  as  seen  in  balance  and 
action  in  face,  eye-movements,  postures  of  the  head 
and  hands,  and  in  response,  etc. 

(43)  General  Balance  Irregular.  —  Not  erect  and 
straight,  but  slouching  and  listless.  The  shoulders 
not  held  at  equal  height,  back  bent  or  twisted  over 
to  one  side,  the  feet  not  each  planted  similarly  on  the 
floor.  When  the  hands  are  held  out,  they  may  be 
at  a  different  level ;  more  often  the  left  is  held  lower 
than  the  right,  and  the  left  hand  more  nearly  ap- 
proaches the  weak  posture. 

The  balance  of  the  body  is  thus  not  equal  on  the 
two  sides. 

(44)  Expression  of  Face  Defective.  —  Want  of  change- 
fulness,  vacancy,  fixed  expression. 

We  may  describe  the  visible  muscular  action  seen 
in  a  face,  and  still  there  may  be  an  expression  in  it 
which  entirely  baffles  description.  Further,  a  face 
may  be  balanced  or  moved  abnormally  by  the  action 
of  certain  muscles,  and  yet  it  may  carry  upon  it  a 
good  expression.  We  may  describe  action  in  the 
frontal  muscles,  the  corrugators,  the  orbicularis  oculi 
etc.,  and,  over  and  above  this,  we  have  the  general 
expression  of  the  face  superadded.  Certain  terms 
are   useful   in    describing   expression ;    there  may  be  a 


I06  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

fixed  expression,  want  of  variation,  i.e.  one  fixed  uni- 
form action  or  balance  of  muscular  tone ;  or  we  may- 
have  to  use  more  general  terms  such  as  "  defective," 
"bad."  There  may  be  no  expression,  i.e.  none  other  than 
that  indicated  by  form  or  modelling  of  the  features. 

(45)  Frontal  Muscles  over-acting. — There  is  a  pair 
of  muscles  in  the  forehead,  placed  vertically  under  the 
skin  and  attached  at  the  eyebrows ;  by  their  action 
they  raise  the  eyebrows,  and  produce  horizontal  creases 
in  the  forehead,  which  may  be  shallow  or  deep,  mak- 
ing transverse  puckers ;  in  other  cases  the  action  is 
fine,  producing  minute  creases,  and  what  may  be  called 
a  dull  forehead.  If  this  frequently  occurs,  it  is  a  bad 
sign  in  children  and  is  most  common  in  those  of  un- 
occupied mind  and  untrained  mental  action. 

This  muscular  over-action  does  not  necessarily  erase 
expression.  Such  over-action  may  be  seen  in  children 
from  earliest  infancy  upwards ;  the  condition  may  be 
temporary,  and,  having  lasted  a  sufficient  number  of 
years  to  produce  permanent  creases  in  the  forehead, 
it  may  pass  away.  These  muscles  are  often  more  quiet 
when  the  child  is  at  work  or  being  talked  to,  than  w"hen 
let  out  to  play ;  the  mental  attitude,  termed  quiet  atten- 
tion, is  that  under  which  the  frontal  area  is  the  most 
quiet. 

This  sign  is  far  more  frequent  in  boys  than  in  girls. 

(46)  Corrugation.  —  Knitting  the  eyebrows  ;  drawing 
the  eyebrows  together.       There  is  a  pair  of  muscles 


POINTS    FOR   ()l'>SF.RVAlION  IO7 

in  the  forehead,  phiced  horizontally  between  the  eye- 
brows which  draws  them  together,  thus  producing 
vertical  creases  which  may  be  deep  or  shallow,  pro- 
ducing vertical  puckerings  on  the  forehead  above  the 
nose,  or  only  a  fine  wrinkling  of  the  skin,  which 
contributes  to  a  dull  appearance  of  the  forehead. 
Corrugation  (knitting  eyebrows)  may  coexist  with  over- 
action  of  the  frontal  muscles  (frowning),  j^roducing 
a  i)uzzled  expression,  or,  if  deep,  a  "scowl,"  as  in 
ill-temper. 

This  sign  seems  more  closely  associated  than  any 
other  single  sign  with  some  forms  of  mental  stress, 
and  may  be  seen  in  children  suffering  from  the  effects 
of  fright,  illusions,  etc. ;  it  may  form  parts  of  a  fixed 
immobile  expression. 

This  sign  is  more  common  in  boys  than  girls. 

(47)  Orbicularis  Oculi  relaxed.  —  Fulness  under  the 
eyes.  There  is  a  thin  muscle  (the  orbicularis  oculi)  which 
encircles  the  eyelids,  and  being  attached  to  the  skin  gives 
tone  to  the  lower  lid,  so  that  its  convexity  is  seen.  In 
a  strong  and  well-toned  face  the  lower  lid  appears  clean- 
cut  and  well  moulded,  the  rotundity  of  the  eyeball  and 
convexity  of  the  lower  lid  are  shown  in  sharp  defini- 
tion of  outline,  due  to  good  tone  in  this  muscle ;  in 
smiling  and  laughter  this  muscle  causes  puckering  of 
the  lower  lid.  When  this  muscle  is  relaxed  and  tone- 
less, the  skin  of  the  under  lid  bulges  forward  and  is 
baggy,  causing  fulness  under  the  eyes.     This  condition 


io8 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


is  removed  temporarily  on  making  the  child  smile  or 
laugh.  The  fulness  under  the  eyes  is  indicative  of 
fatigue,  exhaustion,  or  low  brain  power  in  children  : 
it  frequently  accompanies  recurring  headaches. 

(48)  Eye-movements  Defective. — When  an  object  is 
moved  at  a  distance  two  feet  in  front  of  the  face,  the 

eyes  should  move  in 
following  it.  In  some 
children  the  head  al- 
ways turns  towards 
the  object  while  the 
eyes  are  kept  still  in 
their  orbits.  In  other 
cases  fixation  of  the 
eyes  is  bad,  or  there 
are  restless  uncon- 
trolled movements  of 
the  eyes. 

Movements  of  the 
eyqs  not  controlled 
as  to  their  number 
and  direction  by  ob- 
vious circumstances, 
must  be  looked  upon 
as  signs  of  nervousness.  Irregular  movements  of  the 
eyes  are  common  in  children,  and  are  very  indicative 
of  the  brain  condition :  they  may  be  looked  upon  as 
analogous   to    spontaneous    twitchings    of   the    fingers. 


Fig.  14.  — Complete  Paralysis  of  the 
Right  Side  of  the  Face.  —  The  mus- 
cles of  the  face  act  only  on  the  left  side. 
In  the  forehead  the  frontal  muscles  pro- 
duce horizontal  furrows;  the  muscles 
about  the  mouth  draw  the  left  angle  up- 
wards; the  eyelids  are  more  widely  sep- 
arated on  the  right  side. 


POINTS   FOR   OBSKRVATK^N 


109 


In  these  wandering,  irregular  movements  of  the  eyes 
we  find  an  ilhistration  of  a  common  law  that  exces- 
sive movement  is  often  an  indication  of  weakness  not 
of  strength  :  the  same  thing  is  seen  in  the  twitching 
movements  of  nervous 
children. 

(49)  Head-balance. — 
The  head  should  be 
held  erect;  it  may  be 
inclined  to  one  side  or 
drooped  forward.  Ir- 
regular balance  of  the 
head  is  more  common 
in  girls  than  in  boys. 

(50)  Hand-balance 
Weak.  —  In  this  type  of 
balance  the  hand  when 
held  out  is  slightly 
drooped  or  flexed  at  the 
wrist,  the  palm  slightly 
contracted  or  arched 
laterally,  and  the  fin- 
gers moderately  flexed. 

The  type  may  be  varied  :  with  less  degrees  of  weak- 
ness the  hand  is  as  in  the  normal  with  the  thumb 
drooped  only  ;  in  exhaustion  or  great  feebleness  the 
palm  is  more  contracted  or  adducted,  and  the  degree 
of  flexion  is  srreater. 


Fig.  15.  — Paralysis  ok  Right  Side  of 
Face  from  Brain  Disease.  —  The 
face  is  not  symmetrical,  and  the  mus- 
cles on  the  right  side  about  the  mouth 
act  weakly.  The  line  from  the  nose  to 
the  mouth  on  this  side  is  almost  lost : 
this  is  well  seen  on  comparing  the  two 
sides.  Muscular  action  in  the  upper 
and  middle  parts  of  the  face  is  unequal 
on  each  side. 


no 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


A  bad  type  is  seen  when  children  holding  out  their 
hands  droop  both  thumbs  and  bring  them  together  in 
the  median  plane. 

(51)  Hand-balance  Nervous.  —  In  this  posture  the 
wrist   is   slightly    drooped   or    flexed,  the  palm    of  the 

hand  slightly  contracted 
laterally,  the  thumb  ex- 
tended backwards,  and 
the  fingers  at  the  knuc- 
kles are  bent  backwards 
(see  Fig.  6). 

The  various  elements 
in  this  posture  may  vary 
in  degree ;  the  most  es- 
sential element  appears 
to  be  the  extension  back- 
wards of  the  fingers  at 
the  knuckle  joint,  and 
this  may  affect  the  vari- 

Fig.  16.  — Paralysis  ok  Left  Side  ous   fingers   differently. 
OF  Face  FROM  Brain  Disease.—  .  •  u     u*i 

Similar  differences  are  seen  about  ^^  IS  COmmon  With  chll- 

the  mouth.     The  eyelids  are  a  little  ^^^^    ^i^^    slight    chorca, 
wider  open  on  the  left  side. 

those  the  subjects  of 
night-terrors  and  tooth-grinding,  also  accompanying 
recurrent  headaches.  It  has  been  represented  by 
artists  in  antique  bronzes  and  drawings  on  vases,  as 
well  as  in  modern  works,  especially  in  female  figures. 

(52)  Finger  Twitches.  ^ — -When    the  hands   are   held 


POINTS   FOR   OBSERVATION 


III 


out  for  inspection,  there  may  be  twitching  movements 
in  the  fingers.     These  may  be  up  and  down  (flexion 


and  extension)  or  lateral ;  the  latter  are  produced  by 
the  small  muscles  placed  in  the  hand  which  pull  the 
fingers  sideways. 

(53)  Lordosis. — When  the  hands  are  held  forward, 
an  alteration  in  the  balance  of  the  spine  may  appear, 
with  an  arching  forward  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
back,  while  the  upper  part  of  the  spine  between  the 
shoulders  is  thrown  back.  This  arching  forward  of 
the  lumbar  spine  is  due  to  weakness  of  action  among 
the  spinal  muscles.  When  a  child  holds  out  his  hands, 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  is  moved  forward ;  in 
a  strong  child  this  is  not  followed  by  marked  change 
of  posture  in  the  spine,  but  in  a  weak  child  lordosis 
may  follow  often  with  temporary  lateral  curvature  and 
unequal  balance  of  the  shoulders  while  the  head  and 
neck  are  thrown  back. 


112 


THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 


(54)  Other  Abnormal  Nerve-signs  include  signs  not 
printed  on  the  card  as  being  less  frequent  in  occurrence 
than  those  given  earlier,  but  not  of  less  importance. 

(55)  Deaf.  —  Children  deaf  or  partially  so.  For  tests 
of  hearing  see  Chapter  II. 

(56)  Grinning  or  Over-smiling.  —  In  the  lower  part 
of  the  face  you  may  see  grinning  or  over-smiling  about 

the  angles  of  the  mouth, 
temporarily  widening  the 
opening ;  the  lines  on  the 
face  may  be  slight  or  deep. 
Over-smiling  or  grinning 
is  usually  symmetrical,  but 
may  be  unequal  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  face. 

With  low-class  brain-con- 
ditions it  is  sometimes  seen 
as  almost  the  only  facial 
movement  occurring  upon 
any  stimulus  as  a  uniform 
movement,  almost  as  fre- 
quent as  over-action  of  the 
frontal  muscles. 
If  habitual,  grinning  and  in  particular  the  finer  forms 
of  over-smiling,  often  leave  permanent  naso-labial 
creases  marked  upon  the  skin,  these  may  remain  after 
the  habit  has  been  lost.  If  the  skin  be  thin,  a  dupli- 
cate  or   triplicate    naso-labial   crease  may  be  formed : 


Fig.  18.  —  Imbecile.  —  Head  well 
shapen  and  of  lair  size ;  he  often 
smiled,  thus  moving  parts  around 
the  eyes  and  mouth. 


POINTS   FOR   OBSERVATION 


113 


this    is    more    common    in    neurotic    than    in    imbecile 
subjects. 

(58)  Over-mobile.  —  Constant  spontaneous  movements. 
Among  children  in  the  infant  school  and  in  some  over 
seven  years  of  age,  spontaneous  movement  is  the  nor- 
mal and  a  natural  sign  of  healthy  bruin-activity ;  it  is 
most  common  in  the  eyes 
and  the  fingers.  See  spon- 
taneous movements  in  in- 
fants, Chapter  III.  When 
spontaneous  movements 
cannot  be  controlled,  even 
temporarily,  but  are  in- 
creased (extra-movements) 
when  the  child  is  spoken 
to,  the  condition  passes  on 
to  that  of  chorea,  which 
is  more  commoii  in  girls 
than  boys. 
Chapter  XII 

(59)  Response  in  Action  Defective.  —  Dealing  with 
groups  of  children  by  a  uniform  method  of  examina- 
tion as  described,  it  becomes  easy  to  note  the  response 
to  the  word  of  command  as  seen  in  the  action  fol- 
lowing. Response  in  action  may  be  accurate  or  uncer- 
tain, there  may  be  delay  between  hearing  the  com- 
mand and  the  response ;  some  children  look  at  the 
others    before   responding    in    their    movements ;    they 


See     chorea,      Fig- 19-  —  iMbKCli.E.  —  The  same  case 
quiescent ;  face  wanting  expression. 


114  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

seem  more  easily  controlled  through  the  eye  than 
the   ear. 

The  response  should  be  quick  and  accurate ;  the 
standard  to  be  expected  is  soon  learnt  by  a  little  experi- 
ence. The  action  may  be  long  continued,  the  hands  of 
the  child  being  held  out  long  after  the  others  have 
dropped  them.  There  may  be  want  of  impressionabil- 
ity to  the  stimulus  of  the  command,  which  may  have  to 
be  repeated  before  the  action  follows ;  response  in  imi- 
tation by  sight  may  be,  and  often  is,  much  better  than 
that  following  the  word  of  command.  There  are  some 
children  in  whom  the  sound  of  a  command  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  number  of  irregular  movements,  whereas  an 
indication  through  the  eye,  by  a  gesture  of  command 
on  the  part  of  the  inspector,  is  quickly  followed  by 
accurate  and  good  response. 

(60)  Speech  Defective.  —  Defective  conditions  of  pal- 
ate are  consistent  with  good  speech ;  an  impediment  is 
not  usually  the  mechanical  effect  of  the  form  of  palate. 
It  does,  however,  often  happen  that  with  defect  of 
speech  we  find  an  arched  or  a  narrow  palate  with  co- 
existent brain-feebleness. 

Utterance  may  be  thick  and  indistinct  owing  to  con- 
ditions of  the  throat  and  nose  :  observe  if  the  child  be 
a  mouth-breather,  usually  keeping  the  lips  parted  for 
breathing  and  unable  to  keep  them  closed  with  comfort. 
These  mouth-breathing  children  with  thick  speech 
often  have  large  tonsils  and  conditions  of  the  throat 


POINTS    FOR   OBSERVATION  I  i  5 

leading  to  deafness,  which  require  medical  treatment. 
The  speech  of  children  is  very  important ;  it  may  be 
almost  absent,  or  accompanied  by  stammering  or  im- 
pediment. On  putting  a  question  it  may  be  long 
before  the  reply  comes,  the  question  may  be  repeated 
without  further  reply ;  speaking  to  the  child  may  be 
followed  by  a  large  number  of  irregular  movements  and 
asymmetrical  postures,  —  awkward  action,  —  but  not  by 
a  verbal  reply. 

The  voice  may  vary  greatly  in  tone,  falling  to  an 
almost  inaudible  whisper,  in  place  of  being  well  sus- 
tained ;  or  too  monotonous  as  a  result  of  want  of  train- 
ing, while  the  words  are  badly  spaced  as  he  speaks. 

Speech  is  the  most  important  mode  of  mental  expres- 
sion ;  it  is  a  faculty  that  needs  cultivation  in  all  chil- 
dren. Indistinctness  of  speech  is  very  common,  and 
defects  of  speech  are  frequently  met  with,  both  in  chil- 
dren generally  healthy  and  w^ell  made,  and  in  others  of 
defective  constitution. 

Stammering  is  a  defect  in  articulating  certain  sounds, 
and  is  due  to  a  defect  in  the  nerve-system,  often  associ- 
ated with  other  faulty  conditions  of  brain  ;  it  is  much 
more  commonly  met  with  in  boys  than  girls,  and  to 
some  extent  may  be  acquired  through  imitation  among 
children,  predisposed  by  their  inheritance.  Stammer- 
ing presents  visible  muscular  spasm  in  the  face  and 
other  parts,  usually  commencing  and  spreading  in  a 
uniform  order  in  the  same  boy,  but  varying  in  different 


Il6  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

cases.  The  attack  consists,  essentially,  in  a  temporary 
spasm  or  rigidity  of  certain  muscles  which  prevents 
them  from  being  properly  controlled  by  the  brain. 
When  the  boy  stammers  on  commencing  to  speak,  he 
almost  immediately  stops  on  uttering  certain  sounds, 
because  the  muscles  used  in  articulation  become  rigid ; 
the  range  of  the  spasm  and  the  groups  of  muscles 
affected  may  vary  in  different  cases.  In  the  attack  the 
mouth  may  quiver,  often  more  on  one  side ;  the  jaw  is 
then  depressed,  and  as  the  mouth  is  opened,  the  tongue 
may  be  seen  in  tremor  with  the  tip  near  the  front 
teeth,  while  the  trembling  of  the  tongue-muscles  may 
be  felt  by  the  finger  placed  under  the  chin.  Other 
muscles  in  the  face  may  be  affected :  the  eyebrows 
are  often  knit  (corrugation),  and  an  expression  of  dis- 
tress may  be  seen.  These  recurrent  spasms  in  the 
face  may  leave  lines  in  the  skin,  marking  the  boy  as 
a  stammerer. 

The  attempt  to  remove  stammering  by  training  must 
be  long  and  patiently  continued;  the  employment  of 
general  physical  exercises  quietly  conducted,  and  train- 
ing in  full  breathing  may  be  useful.  Every  prolonged 
attack  of  stammering  tends  to  its  recurrence.  A  most 
important  point  is  to  lessen  the  duration  and  severity 
of  each  attack,  and  to  arrest  the  spasm,  when  it  com- 
mences ;  that  is  to  say,  let  the  boy  stop  speaking  at  the 
moment,  and  try  again  presently.  The  teacher  should 
then  learn   to  observe  the  usual  sign  of  commencing 


POINTS   FOR   OBSERVATION  \\y 

spasm  and  stop  speaking  at  once.  These  children 
may  sing  without  difficulty. 

Case  15.  A  boy  who  stammers :  muscular  spasm 
commences  in  the  forehead. 

A  school-boy  eleven  years  of  age  was  brought  to 
me,  because  he  had  been  liable  to  stammer  for  the 
last  four  years,  this  trouble  having  been  increased  the 
last  three  weeks,  coincident  with  disturbed  digestion. 
On  asking  him  a  simple  question  he  stammered  in  his 
reply.  Looking  at  his  face,  the  following  conditions 
were  seen.  When  about  to  stammer,  the  muscles  in 
the  forehead  produced  both  horizontal  and  vertical 
furrows ;  in  the  lower  part  of  the  face  the  mouth  was 
widened  on  either  side,  together  with  elevation  of  the 
upper  lip  opposite  the  canine  tooth ;  this  was  more 
marked  on  the  right  than  the  left  side. 

Case  16.  Stammerer ;  muscular  spasm  commences 
about  the  mouth,  an  intelligent  boy  —  rickets. 

A  boy  twelve  years  of  age,  intelligent,  but  stammers 
badly.  This  does  not  interfere  with  singing,  and  he 
has  joined  a  choir.  He  is  tall,  rather  thin,  weight  5^ 
stones  {yy  lbs.).  The  head  and  chest  show  signs  of 
rickets  in  infancy,  probably  resulting  from  the  fact  that 
he  was  fed  on  biscuits  as  a  baby.  His  general  bal- 
ance of  body  is  faulty,  and  his  hands  are  not  held  out 
straight ;  physical  training  may  improve  his  action. 

On  beginning  to  speak,  spasm  in  the  face  commences 
at  the  right  angle  of  the   mouth,  and  saliva  dribbles 


Il8  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

from  it ;  the  spasm  then  spreads  and  the  forehead 
becomes  puckered ;  the  mouth  opens  and  the  tongue 
is  seen  quivering  against  the  teeth,  while  his  colour 
heightens  during  the  attack.  He  was  placed  at  a  small 
school  near  the  sea  and  improved  in  health  with  some 
improvement  of  speech. 

V 


CHAPTER   VII 

Examination  of    Mental  Ability  and  the   Faults 
that  may  be  observed 

When  examining  a  child's  mental  ability  in  school, 
you  will  naturally  speak  to  him  and  let  him  talk  to 
you  as  well  as  read   and  write,  if    he    is    old    enough. 

The  proper  use  of  speech  is  a  most  important  in- 
dication of  the  mental  processes;  but  we  shall  see 
that  other  tests  not  involving  speech,  reading  or  the 
use  of  figures,  are  also  of  great  interest. 

Let  the  child  stand,  and  holding  his  book  in  a 
good  light  read  a  passage  to  you.  Notice  how  the 
book  is  held  and  whether  it  is  kept  i8  inches  or  so 
from  his  face :  if  he  shows  difficulty  or  is  timid,  it 
may  be  well  that  you  should  read  the  passage  to 
him  first  or  read  it  with  him ;  or  better  take  a  pas- 
sage you  know,  and  recite  it,  watching  his  face  and 
his  eyes. 

Talk  to  the  child  and  let  him  talk  to  you  of  his 
home,  his  amusements,  games,  pet  animals,  pocket- 
money,  and  the  stories  he  reads ;  you  can  observe 
the  while  the  child's  expression  and  speech,  his  con- 
trol by  hearing  and  accuracy  in   seeing.     In   his  talk 

119 


I20  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

you  may  notice  how  far  he  can  express  himself  in 
words  and  speak  connectedly :  in  his  answers  to 
questions  you  observe  whether  his  processes  of  think- 
ing are  orderly  and  natural.  A  young  child  tends 
to  repetition  of  the  words  of  the  question,  espe- 
cially if  he  sees  the  face  of  the  speaker ;  this  is  by 
no  means  a  point  of  defect  at  an  early  age,  and 
proves  that  the  child  heard  the  question ;  but  in 
some  children,  old  enough  to  do  better,  the  question 
is  siniply  repeated  or  imitated  without  any  attempt 
at  reply.  Repetition  of  the  question  shows  imitation 
and  delayed  mental  action  in  place  of  a  prompt 
mental  process ;  if  the  subsequent  answer  is  correct, 
the  delay  does  not  very  much  matter,  but  sometimes 
the  delay  is  so  long,  that  the  impress  of  the  ques- 
tion (auditory)  on  the  brain  fades  and  no  true  think- 
ing results.  If  this  delay  in  response  is  accompanied 
by  extra-movements  and  fidgetiness,  a  mental  fault 
(probably  mental  confusion)  is  indicated. 

The  child's  vocabulary  may  be  very  limited,  com- 
paratively few  words  having  been  acquired,  —  per- 
haps 200 ;  this  is  sometimes  owing  to  the  child  hav- 
ing been  allowed  to  point  to  things  wanted  instead 
of  asking  for  them,  just  as  he  may  grow  up  lazy 
and  backward  by  having  all  his  wants  anticipated 
for  him  by  others.  To  increase  the  number  of 
words  habitually  used  and  available  for  language, 
correctly    employed,    is    an    important    part   of    mental 


EXAMIX.VriOX    OV    MKXTAL   ABILITY  I2I 

training  and  improves  brain-power  and  the  capacity 
for  thinking  :  perhaps  vocabulary  is  best  extended  by 
talking  to  and  with  the  child  —  we  must  not  wait  for 
him  to  get  his  words  from  books.  Speech  and  artic- 
ulation need  training  in  all  children  ;  speech  may  be 
too  monotonous,  not  modulated  in  tone  and  indistinct; 
the  spacing  of  words  in  speaking  and  reading  may 
be  badly  arranged.  Good  speaking  is  very  indicative 
of  good  mental  aptitude  well  trained  ;  to  impart  good 
faculty  in  speech  gives  an  important  form  of  mental 
refinement. 

A  talk  with  the  child  may  be  planned  to  show 
many  mental  characteristics.  Social  and  moral  sense 
should  be  looked  for  in  the  child,  and  knowledge 
how  to  act  correctly  in  social  life,  as  well  as  how 
to  avail  himself  of  common  social  methods  under 
varying  circumstances.  Can  the  child  write  a  letter.' 
Ask  him  what  he  must  get  before  he  can  write  the 
letter,  how  he  buys  the  stamps,  how  the  letter  gets 
to  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed;  ask  him  how 
he  would  get  there  himself  and  what  money  would 
be  wanted.  The  child's  ideas  as  to  how  he  would 
protect  himself  from  danger,  how  he  would  try  to 
help  another  child,  and  what  he  would  do  with  a 
dog,  may  show  much. 

Memory  may  be  tested  by  asking  the  home  ad- 
dress, the  day  of  the  week  and  the  month,  and  past 
common  events  probably  within  the  child's  experience 


122  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

—  ask  him  where  he  puts  his  books  and  keeps  other 
things,  when  done  with,  and  how  he  finds  them 
again,  whether  he  looks  for  them  or  asks  some  one 
else  to  do  so.  The  child  that  uses  his  eyes  badly 
is  apt  to  have  a  bad  memory :  this  form  of  mental 
association  of  ideas  (brain-centres  in  co-action)  that 
gives  memory  is  largely  produced  by  accurate  seeing 
(impress  of  brain  through  the  eye). 

Test  the  pupil  in  his  knowledge  of  the  use  of 
numbers  and  in  arithmetic,  both  on  paper  and  by 
simple  calculations  worked  in  his  head.  Is  he  more 
accurate  when  he  looks  at  figures  on  the  slate  and 
uses  his  eyes  or  when  he  does  mental  arithmetic 
without  the  help  of  his  eyes  ?  again  in  the  latter  at- 
tempt does  he  count  on  his  fingers .-'  Some  children 
of  low  mental  ability  have  a  great  faculty  for  re- 
membering figures,  and  sometimes  in  making  certain 
calculations. 

Some  power  of  reasoning  may  be  tested  by  de- 
scribing common  objects,  pointing  out  in  what  par- 
ticulars they  can  be  compared.  Show  a  pin  and  a 
pencil.  Are  they  alike  ?  If  the  pupil  tells  you  that 
the  pin  is  small  and  the  pencil  larger,  and  that  each 
is  much  longer  than  it  is  wide,  that  indicates  a 
mental  comparison  and  a  judgment. 

Imitation  is  faculty  involving  brain-action  which  is 
principally  effected  through  sight :  the  objects  imitated 
by  the  child  in  school  are  the  teacher's  actions,  expres- 


EXAMINATION    OI'    MENTAL    Al'.II.ITY  123 

sions,  gestures,  movements,  and  those  of  the  other 
pupils.  Test  the  child's  brain-power  in  imitation  of 
your  action.  Let  the  child  stand  and  look  at  you,  tell- 
ing him  to  do  as  you  do.  When  you  hold  out  your 
right  hand,  the  child  holds  out  his  left,  which  is  oppo- 
site to  your  right;  the  side  of  movement  is  thus  reversed 
throughout  the  exercise,  unless  he  has  otherwise  been 
trained;  this  is  the  instinctive  mode  of  response.  Make 
your  movements  with  care  and  accuracy,  noting  what 
you  do  ;  see  that  the  child  looks  at  your  hand,  not  at 
your  face  or  eyes,  and  observe  if  his  movements  in  imita- 
tion are  exactly  the  same  as  yours,  in  the  parts  he 
moves,  in  the  time  and  quickness  of  movement,  and  in 
the  degree  or  quantity  of  movement. 

Let  me  suggest  a  few  finger  exercises  for  your  use 
in  thus  testing  the  children,  and  for  convenience  I  will 
name  the  fingers  thus  :  A,  the  thumb ;  B,  the  index 
finger ;  C,  the  middle  finger ;  D,  the  ring  finger ; 
E,  the  little  finger. 

Make  the  following  order  of  movements  slowly  and 
separately  one  after  the  other : 

A,  bend  thumb  ;  A  and  B  ;  A,  B,  and  C ;  B,  C,  D,  E  ; 
E  only. 

B,  index  finger,  moved  from  side  to  side  without 
bending  it  up  or  down. 

C,  middle  finger  moved  in  the  same  manner. 

Thus  vary  your  movements  while  the  pupil  follows 
you,  as  a  well-trained  child  will  do.     In  this  and  in  many 


124  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Other  ways  you  may  test  with  accuracy  the  power  of 
imitation  and  control  of  movements  by  sight  of  your 
action. 

After  talking  to  the  child  and  observing  his  move- 
ments in  imitation,  you  will  probably  find,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  some  analogy  between  the  two  modes  of  brain- 
action,  movement  and  thinking.  The  child  who  is  slow 
in  all  his  actions  and  in  speech  is  apt  to  be  slow  in  his 
mental  processes.  He  may  be  slow  in  movement, 
holding  out  his  hands  long  after  the  command,  while  he 
looks  to  see  what  others  do  before  he  does  the  same, 
and  will  keep  his  hands  out  after  the  others  have 
dropped  theirs  :  class-practice  is  useful  to  quicken  such 
children.  .^  He  also  takes  a  long  time  to  make  a  simple 
calculation  in  his  head  or  to  work  with  figures  on  paper; 
he  is  slow  in  thinking  out  the  answer  to  a  simple  ques- 
tion and  in  expressing  in  words  what  he  really  knows, 
the  words  do  not  form  quickly  in  his  brain,  as  in  other 
children;  at  the  same  time  a  brightening  expression  in 
the  face  may  suggest  that  a  mental  process  is  going  on 
there :  though  long  in  answering  he  may  at  length  do 
so  correctly. 

A  child's  mental  process  may  be  too  slow  and  limited, 
though  fairly  accurate.  The  interval  between  speak- 
ing to  him  and  the  reply  may  be  too  long.  Then  try 
not  only  to  quicken  his  mental  processes,  but  also  to 
quicken  the  interaction  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the 
hand,  as  by  games,  and    especially  competitive  games 


EXAMINATION   OF   MENTAL   ABILITY  1 25 

with  a  ball  where  the  action  must  be  quick  or  failure 
follows. 

A  child  may  not  be  really  slow  in  the  processes  of 
thinking,  but  an  impression  having  been  made  on  the 
brain,  its  expression  in  action  or  in  words  may  occur  at 
a  later  time.  The  child  may  see  or  hear  something  and 
act  upon  it  or  talk  about  it  another  time  ;  there  may  be 
delayed  expression  of  a  mental  impression. 

Case  17.  A  child,  four  years  old,  looked  quietly  at  his 
mother  putting  a  letter  into  a  pillar-box ;  she  could  not 
at  the  time  see  the  impression  made  upon  the  child's 
brain,  but  thought  some  impression  had  been  produced, 
because  his  head  and  eyes  turned  towards  the  pillar- 
box:  she  knew  next  day  that  an  impression  had  been 
received,  when  the  child  seeing  a  letter  on  the  table 
took  it  and  posted  it  behind  the  door  —  an  action  he 
had  not  been  known  to  do  previously. 

In  older  children  expression  of  thought  may  be  long 
delayed ;  the  pupil  begins  to  answer  some  former  ques- 
tion, as  to  which  some  half-unconscious  mental  process 
has  been  going  on.  A  question  may  be  asked  in  class 
and  not  answered  ;  later  on  some  reply  to  that  question 
is  given  unconsciously,  when  another  question  is  put. 
"  How  does  a  plant  get  the  water  for  its  leaves  .■"  "  No 
answer.  "  What  is  the  shape  of  this  leaf  ? "  Ans. 
"  Oval,  with  a  midrib,  and  the  water  comes  to  the  pulp 
of  the  leaf  along  that,  and  the  root  draws  the  water 
from  the   ground."     The  pupil  knew  about  it  all  the 


126  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

time ;  the  association  of  ideas  suggested  by  the  second 
question  completed  the  correct  processes  of  thinking. 

The  term  Introspection  is  used  to  imply  the  habit  in 
a  child  of  thinking  about  his  own  thoughts  —  his  own 
thoughts  being  the  subject  of  his  contemplation,  rather 
than  the  thoughts  implanted  at  school,  or  his  games  and 
the  common  objects  of  interest  to  children.  Such  chil- 
dren will  ask  you  how  a  stone  was  made,  or  put  to  you 
a  problem  of  ethics,  which  may  puzzle  you,  and  is  a 
useless  point  for  the  child  to  think  about.  This  habit 
in  a  child  is,  sometimes,  very  exhausting  to  the  brain- 
power, particularly  when  practised  in  a  half-dormant 
state.  Serious  thinking  about  the  mental  state,  good- 
ness and  what  ought  to  be,  should,  I  think,  be  undertaken 
only  when  the  mental  faculties  are  at  their  brightest 
and  under  the  guidance  of  a  trained  mind,  so  that,  under 
friendly  advice,  some  immediate  good  action  may  follow. 
Introspection  is  found  as  a  habit  among  children  of  the 
nervous  class,  and  is  largely  due  to  want  of  proper 
guidance  and  mental  control.  If  it  recurs  often,  it  may 
be  well  to  give  the  child  some  concrete  thought  which 
he  may  be  taught  to  recall,  when  his  thoughts  thus 
wander,  as  often  they  do  on  trying  to  fall  asleep.  Let 
him  call  up  in  imagination  some  pleasant  landscape 
scene,  a  game,  or  the  sight  of  his  mother,  or  other 
subject  not  bad  to  dream  on.  Muscular  activity  during 
the  day  and  a  school-life  among  other  children  may 
remove  such  habits  of  thinking,  and    useless  waste  of 


EXAMINATION   OF   MENTAL  ABILITY  1 27 

Strength.  This  spontaneous  thinking  in  a  child,  not 
in  accordance  with  his  environment,  seems  to  me 
to  be  very  analogous  to  the  spontaneous  movements 
of  infancy ;  it  effects  nothing,  but  is  a  sign  of 
mental  action,  which  needs  to  be  coordinated  and 
directed. 

Children  of  the  kind  here  referred  to  are  sometimes 
said  to  be  precocious  and  clever ;  I  suspect  that  these 
self-contained  thoughts  do  not  do  much  good. 

Mental  ability  in  knowledge,  calculation,  memory, 
and  in  reasoning  power  may  be  tested  by  questions 
asked  of  the  pupil ;  failure  to  pass  such  tests  may  show 
ignorance  or  the  absence  of  previous  training,  or  it  may 
be  want  of  mental  faculty.  Again,  mental  tests  by 
question  and  answer  are  not  well  adapted  to  prove 
mental  ability  or  its  absence  in  very  young  children. 
We  then  have  to  look  for  other  points  by  which  to 
estimate  brain-power  for  mental  processes,  especially 
applicable  to  children  dull  or  backward,  and  neglected, 
or  difficult  in  receiving  instruction. 

In  testing  the  brain-faculty  we  need  not  rely  solely 
on  questions  and  answers,  whether  oral  or  written.  A 
child,  untrained  in  school  work,  may  appreciate  number, 
weight,  size,  colour,  form,  though  he  has  not  the  ready 
use  of  words  for  describing  what  he  understands :  we 
may  find  that  he  has  brain-faculty  in  imitation,  in  power 
of  exercising  choice,  making  comparison  and  in  judg- 
ment. 


128  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

Let  the  child  count  some  money  as  it  lies  on  the  table, 
first  as  to  the  number  of  pieces,  then  sort  the  coins  as 
to  their  metal,  and  as  to  value ;  he  may  show  mental 
capacity  in  the  process.  To  be  more  accurate  in  such 
examination,  let  the  pupil  count  the  coins  with  his  own 
hands,  one  by  one,  on  to  the  pile,  i.e.  count  his  hand- 
movements  ;  let  him  count  them  again,  as  you  place 
them  one  by  one  in  a  pile,  i.e.  count  your  hand-move- 
ments by  moving  his  eyes.  Again  let  him  count  the 
coins  as  they  lie  on  the  table,  without  touching  them,  by 
his  eye-movements  alone.  Note  by  which  method  he 
proceeds  best.  Can  he  name  or  distinguish  coins 
without  seeing  them  when  placed  in  his  open  hands, 
on  the  palm  or  on  his  fingers  ;  feeling  their  weight 
and  comparing  them  (muscular  sense),  or  must  he 
close  his  fingers  on  them  and  appreciate  them  by 
his  finger-movements  (sense  of  movements  of  small 
parts)  '^. 

Test  his  knowledge  of  various  weights ;  use  \,  |, 
I  oz.  weights.  It  is  convenient  to  use  iron  weights 
where  the  size  is  proportional  to  the  weight,  and  also 
pill-boxes  all  of  the  same  size  and  appearance,  the 
weights  being  made  up  by  plaster  inside.  Let  the 
child  weigh  each  in  his  hands,  with  the  fingers  open, 
and  again  closing  his  fingers  over  the  object  and  feel- 
ing its  size ;  he  may  thus  form  a  judgment  and  com- 
parison of  weight.  He  may  not  only  form  a  judgment 
as  to  the  proportion  of  weights,  but  also  name  a  single 


EXAMINATION'   OF   MENTAL   AP.ILITY  129 

weight  given  to  him  :  this  is  an  act  of  memory  and 
proper  use  of  names. 

You  may  also  test  the  sense  of  temperature  by  warm- 
ing a  coin  in  hot  water  and  see  if  he  appreciates  its 
warmth. 

Case  18.  A  dumb  boy  acquired  experience  and  rea- 
soning as  to  temperature. 

I  detected  acquired  experience  and  some  reasoning 
power  m  a  small  boy  almost  without  speech  thus :  I 
touched  his  hand  with  a  piece  of  metal,  and  he  looked 
at  me,  then  letting  him  see  me  heat  the  metal  in  some 
steaming  hot  water,  he  very  properly  declined  to  let  me 
touch  him  again  with  that  piece  of  metal ;  but  he  took 
a  ball  from  me  readily  and  played  with  it.  This  boy 
was  capable  of  gaining  experience  and  acting  on  it  in 
self-defence. 

Case  19.  A  very  dull  boy,  short-sighted,  and  deaf, 
can  compare  weights. 

A  boy,  eight  years  of  age,  has  always  been  delicate 
and  backward ;  he  attends  a  Kindergarten  and  has 
begun  reading  words  of  two  or  three  letters,  paper- 
folding,  colouring ;  he  knows  copper  coins  from  one 
another  and  is  fond  of  singing.  He  is  timid,  but 
social  and  not  troublesome.  His  speech  is  thick  and 
nasal  so  as  to  be  hardly  intelligible,  but  he  tries  to 
speak;  the  mouth  is  small,  while  the  lips  are  thick 
and  never  quite  closed.  He  is  small  and  short  for  his 
age;  weight  3  st.  4  lb.  (46  lb.);   height  3  ft.  8  in.     His 


130  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

head  is  small,  only  18^  inches  circumference,  and  the 
palate  is  narrow.  Facial  expression  is  wanting,  with 
fulness  under  his  eyes  and  horizontal  frowning ;  the 
hands  balance  in  the  "  nervous  posture "  ;  he  can  put 
pins  in  a  cushion  one  by  one,  but  is  slow  and  clumsy. 
Looking  at  my  watch,  he  places  his  face  horizontal, 
holding  the  watch  six  inches  from  his  eyes.  The  boy 
is  small-brained,  delicate,  short-sighted,  and  has  obstruc- 
tion in  his  throat  interfering  with  breathing  and  hear- 
ing. He  has  faculty  in  judgment,  for  he  compared 
weights  accurately ;  and  told  me  himself  that  the  iron 
weight  was  cold. 

As  a  further  test  of  accuracy  in  movement  let  the 
child  try  to  touch  his  nose  with  his  eyes  shut,  then 
other  parts  of  his  face,  eye,  and  ear,  as  you  name  them ; 
again  with  his  left  hand  held  out  and  the  fingers  spread, 
let  him  shut  his  eyes  and  with  the  index  finger  of  his 
right  hand  touch  the  fingers  on  his  left  hand,  one 
after  another,  naming  them  if  he  can. 

Accuracy  in  telling  the  time  by  a  clock  or  by  your 
watch  is  a  useful  test;  you  may  detect  short  sight  in 
the  child,  who  can  see  the  clock  at  two  feet,  but  can- 
not read  the  watch  at  ten  inches. 

In  examining  any  child,  his  handwriting  is  worth 
preserving ;  let  him  write  his  name  and  address  with 
the  date. 

Teachers  who  deal  with  mental  state  mainly,  gener- 
ally know  more  of  the  mental  than  of  the  physical  and 


EXAMINATION    OK    MENTAL    AiMI.I  TV  131 

general  brain-state  i)t  their  pupils  ;  in  scliool  inspection 
we  find  it  more  easy  to  detect  physical  and  general 
brain-states.  A  child  may  have  grave  mental  defects 
and  may  yet  present  no  obvious  defects  that  the  eye 
of  the  observer  can  detect.  Ouestioning  and  some- 
what prolonged  examination  is  needed  to  detect  mental 
defects,  when  no  obvious  signs  are  observable.  The 
physical  observer  may  be  sure  of  the  signs  he  observes, 
but  to  see  no  defects  does  not  prove  that  the  child  is 
normal. 

Looking  back  at  the  mental  examination  of  the  pupil, 
let  us  see  what  principles  are  involved  in  the  tests 
applied.  This  we  may  do  by  tracing  motor  action, 
point  by  point,  corresponding  to  the  expression  of 
mental  acts  or  status,  and  infer  the  kind  of  brain- 
action  that  takes  place  corresponding  to  each.  Thus  : 
The  child  is  inaccurate  in  reading  and  slips  a  line,  as 
he  fails  to  carry  his  eye  correctly  from  the  end  of  one 
line  to  the  beginning  of  the  next ;  this  may  be  due  to 
untrained  eye-movements,  not  to  mental  dulness ;  for 
this  reason  eye-drill  for  five  minutes  preceding  a  les- 
son in  reading  is  advisable. 

The  child  repeats  the  question  asked :  that  is  an  act 
of  imitation  through  the  ear ;  try  if  he  has  good  faculty 
in  imitation  of  your  movements  through  his  eyes,  which 
may  afford  a  useful  mode  of  training. 

Translation  of  mental  states  from  teacher  to  pupil,  is 
largely  effected  by  imitation  of   the  visible  expression 


132  THE   SrUDV   OF   CHILDREN 

seen  in  the  teacher  by  the  pupil.  The  appearance  of 
strength,  fatigue,  or  quiet  mental  attention  in  the  teacher 
is  imitated  by  the  children,  thus  placing  their  brains  in 
a  similar  attitude.  Truly,  the  study  of  physiology  does 
not  lessen  our  moral  responsibilities. 

There  is  one  item  in  imitation  I  wish  to  draw  atten- 
tion to.  After  telling  the  child  to  do  as  you  do,  raise 
your  right  hand  :  probably  the  child  will  raise  his  left, 
which  is  opposite  to  your  right,  in  place  of  doing  as 
you  do;  I  believe  such  mode  of  copying  should  be 
checked  in  older  children  as  being  inaccurate.  The 
principle  of  imitation  extends  to  the  smallest  details ; 
in  teaching  speech  the  pupil  should  look  fixedly  at  the 
movements  of  the  teacher's  mouth,  and  imitate  them  as 
well  as  the  sounds  produced.  To  bring  about  such 
accurate  imitation  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  in  the 
child  the  habit  of  fixing  the  eyes  on  the  object  he  is 
told  to  look  at. 

Defect  of  memory  in  common  matters,  such  as  where 
to  find  books  and  things,  very  commonly  depends  not 
upon  a  brain-fault  or  defect  so  much,  as  not  turning 
the  eyes  to  look  at  the  object,  when  putting  it  away. 
Losing  things,  especially  dropping  them  unconsciously, 
is  common  in  children  with  much  spontaneous  finger- 
movement  ;  if  the  fingers  open,  the  object  falls ;  it  is 
not  seen  and  is  forgotten. 

Memory,  whether  as  to  where  an  object  was  last 
placed  or  as   to   past   events,  or  memory  of   a   lesson 


EXAMINATION   OF   MENTAL   ABILITY  133 

learnt,  depends  upon  two  conditions  in  the  brain  :  (i)  a 
sufficiently  deep  impression  at  the  time  the  object  or 
the  lesson  page  were  seen,  and  (2)  the  re-activity  of  the 
brain-centres.  Defective  action  in  the  more  purely 
mental  processes  may  depend  ujjon  not  looking  well 
at  the  lesson  to  be  learnt ;  trying  to  repeat  it  after 
once  reading,  instead  of  reading  it  two  or  three  times  : 
it  is  well  to  tell  each  child,  how  many  times  to 
read  the  passage  rather  than  simply  to  tell  him  to 
learn  it. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  trace  the  physiological  prin- 
ciples involved  in  some  of  the  tests  of  mental  ability, 
that  have  already  been  suggested  and  illustrated. 

Among  other  principles  involved  are  :  — 

Spontaneity  of  action. 

Control  of  action  through  eye. 

Control  of  action  through  ear. 

Action  coordinated  by  present  impressions. 

Action  coordinated  by  past  impressions  in  past  — 
results  of  training. 

Repetitive  uniform  action  in  movement,  and  in  ex- 
pression of  thoughts. 

A  spreading  area  of  action  —  more  objects  of  thought 
expressed. 

Diminishing  area  of  action  —  some  objects  of  thought 
dropping  out  of  memory  as  the  examination  proceeds. 

Loss  of  coordinated  action  —  as  your  examination 
proceeds  —  Fatigue. 


134  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Association  of  pre-arranged  acts  —  in  movement  and 
games  or  combined  in  expressing  thoughts  —  Thinking, 
Logic. 

Good  or  indifferent  mental  action  in  such  points  may 
be  found ;  and  corresponding  to  each  may  be  seen  simi- 
lar good  or  indifferent  motor  action,  as  explained  in 
speaking  of  the  nerve-signs  of  brain-action. 

These  points  are  briefly  given  as  a  means  of  possibly 
starting  on  a  well-arranged  plan  of  training  the  indi- 
vidual child.  It  vi^ill  also  be  found  that,  if  the  kind  of 
motor  action  seen  in  the  child  does  correspond  with 
what  you  find  on  mental  examination,  you  are  enabled 
to  form  a  judgment  much  more  rapidly ;  agreement  of 
results  of  the  two  methods  of  examination  forms  a  basis 
for  a  well-grounded  opinion. 

It  may  be  convenient  to  tabulate  methods  of  mental 
examination  in  school,  indicating  the  principles  involved. 

The  pupil  reads  aloud.  He  is  impressed  through  his 
eyes  and  by  the  sound  of  his  own  voice.  Testing  his 
accuracy  of  sight  impression  ;  he  may  correct  his  mis- 
takes as  he  hears  his  own  words. 

The  pupil  reads  to  himself  quietly.  He  is  impressed 
through  his  eyes  only.  Testing  accuracy  in  movements 
of  his  eyes  and  impressions  received  by  sight. 

The  teacher  reads  to  the  pupil.  His  impression  is 
received  by  sound  and  by  sight  of  expression  in  the 
teacher  whom  he  tends  subsequently  to  copy,  as  in  lip 
reading.     Testing  imitative  faculty  of  expression. 


LXAMLXATIUN    UF    MENTAL   ABILIIV  135 

The  pupil  recites  from  memory.  Retentivcness. 
Testing  memory  following  imi)ressions  through  eyes 
and  cars,  and  the  faculty  of  expression  in  good  speech. 
Recitation  may  be  better  if  he  has  seen  and  heard 
teacher  reading. 

The  pupil  talks  of  the  passage  read.  Your  leading 
questions  draw  out  the  expression  of  the  pupil's 
thoughts.  Testing  the  mental  impression  he  received 
through  his  senses,  and  his  faculty  in  connecting 
thoughts  and  expressing  them  in  words  and  gesture. 

Class  recitation  of  the  passage  read.  Produces  on  each 
pupil  a  rapid  impression  of  the  environment.  Testing 
capability  for  class  teaching  without  excitement  and 
mental  confusion. 

Repeated  recitation  of  passage  pupil  knows  best.  If 
improved  at  second  trial,  he  shows  power  of  adhesion 
of  ideas  and  memory. 

Answers  to  general  questions  on  the  passage.  Testing 
trained  habits  in  thinking  and  expression. 

Your  mental  examination  thus  conducted  will  bring 
under  observation  children  in  whom  what  you  see  and 
hear  corresponds  with  their  mental  status,  and  may 
indicate  what  to  do  for  them.  Repeating  the  question 
is  pure  imitation  by  sound :  try  and  use  this  imitative 
faculty.  Mental  confusion  is  often  accompanied  by 
extra-movements  and  a  spreading  area  in  visible  action : 
try  and  produce  well-regulated  movements  in  physical 
exercises.     Forgetfulness  and  bad  memory  may  result 


136  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

from  inaccurate  seeing  and  hearing.  Inaccuracy  in 
dictation  and  in  transcription  may  depend  upon  defec- 
tive hearing  and  seeing  respectively,  or  upon  faulty 
eye-movements.  Children  are  often  called  silly,  who 
speak  in  disjointed  sentences  not  adapted  to  the  circum- 
stances, especially  if  this  is  accompanied  by  extra  and 
fidgety  movements  or  giggling ;  while  others  show 
simple  mental  confusion,  and  when  addressed  in  the 
afternoon,  saying,  "  good  morning  "  or  "  good  evening," 
or  even  "  good-bye."  Other  children  get  red  in  the 
face  and  turn  away  or  look  awkward  or  confused  when 
spoken  to ;  they  should  be  taught  some  form  of  social 
salute  on  meeting  a  friend  and  even  how  to  shake 
hands.  A  purely  imitative  child  puts  out  his  left  hand 
to  meet  your  right  hand  unless  taught  otherwise. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
Some  General   Conditions    in  Children   Described 

We  have  considered  how  to  observe  and  describe  a 
child  in  his  body  and  as  to  his  brain-action ;  as  well  as 
the  points  to  be  noted,  indicating  a  sub-normal  condi- 
tion. I  shall  now  describe  various  conditions  seen  in 
children,  some  of  which  are  signs  of  a  healthy  body 
and  brain,  while  others  must  be  looked  upon  as  faults 
or  conditions  of  disturbance,  to  be  removed,  if  possible, 
by  care  and  training.  The  presence  of  some  fault  in  a 
child  does  not  necessarily  show  him  to  be  either  a  weak 
child,  or  wanting  in  mental  power.  Certain  types  of 
childhood  will  be  described  to  help  us  in  speaking  of 
the  training  adapted  to  different  classes  of  children. 

The  most  interesting  conditions  of  the  child's  brain 
are  the  faculties  of  mental  consciousness,  seeing,  hear- 
ing, feeling,  thinking,  which  make  up  the  inner  mind- 
life  of  the  child.  You  will  find  that  the  movements, 
accompanying  and  expressing  consciousness,  are  mainly 
such  as  are  stimulated  by  circumstances  acting  on  the 
brain  (through  the  senses).  If  speaking  to  the  child, 
or  showing  him  objects,  is  followed  by  his  handling 
them    and    speaking   of   them,   he   is  said    to    be    con- 

137 


138  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

scions ;  or,  if  he  subsequently  speaks  of  those  things, 
he  is  said  to  have  been  conscious,  when  he  saw  them, 
because  we  see  that  his  brain  was  impressed  by  the 
sight ;  again,  if  the  child  does  anything  you  tell  him 
to  do  (ear-mindedness),  he  is  conscious.  The  only 
normal  and  healthy  condition  of  absence  of  conscious- 
ness is  in  sleep. 

Sleep  is  so  important  to  healthy  child  life,  that, 
though  it  may  not  be  seen  in  the  schoolroom,  some 
of  the  facts  concerning  sleep  are  well  worthy  of  your 
attention,  and  I  would  recommend  you  to  look  at  and 
study  children  in  sleep,  when  you  have  the  opportunity. 
In  sound,  healthy  sleep  the  child  is  unconscious  ;  there 
is  a  general  absence  of  movements,  except  those  of 
breathing ;  if  you  speak  in  a  low  voice,  no  response 
follows,  and  on  gently  raising  the  eyelids  you  will  see 
that  the  pupils  are  very  small,  unless  you  wake  him, 
when  they  expand  ;  but  you  have  made  no  permanent 
impression  on  his  sleeping  brain,  and  next  day  he  will 
know  nothing  about  your  observations.  The  absence 
of  movement  in  sleep  indicates  brain-rest,  nerve-currents 
are  not  being  generated  in  the  nerve-centres,  at  any 
rate  not  in  great  strength,  passing  to  the  muscles  to 
produce  movement.  The  blood  is  circulating  in  the 
brain  and  nourishing  it  throughout,  its  force  being 
stored  up  for  the  activity  of  the  next  day.  Tooth- 
grinding  sometimes  occurs  during  imperfect  sleep  and 
is  an  indication  of  brain-irritability. 


SOME   GENERAL   COXDITIONS   IN   CHILDREN         1 39 

Complete  rest  during  an  hour  in  the  day  is  necessary 
for  some  children  ;  the  child  may  rest  by  lying  down 
or  reclining  in  an  arm-chair  with  a  story  book  ;  this  is 
best  effected  after  feeding,  when  the  blood  is  rich  in 
nutritive  material  for  building  up  brain-tissue.  Rest 
resembles  sleep  in  the  little  expenditure  of  nerve-force, 
but  differs  from  it  in  the  retention  of  impressionability 
to  the  surroundings. 

Strength  and  activity  of  brain-power  are  indicated  by 
good  balance  of  the  body,  a  lively  expression  of  the 
face,  and  good  tone  in  its  muscles  and  around  the  eyes, 
without  over-action  in  the  forehead,  together  with  much 
spontaneous  movement,  chattering,  and  talkativeness. 
These  signs  indicate  spontaneous  healthy  brain-action, 
ready  to  be  brought  under  control,  without  being 
stopped,  under  your  care,  by  impressions  received 
through  the  senses  and  in  imitation  of  your  actions. 
Accompanying  such  indications  of  activity  in  move- 
ment, there  are  probably  many  spontaneous,  disjointed 
acts  of  thinking ;  if  you  can  guide  these,  you  may  effect 
good  mental  culture.  You  want  to  train  spontaneous 
brain-action  to  mental  work,  and  when  beginning  les- 
sons, you  naturally  require  the  children  to  be  quiet, 
that  they  may  think  and  not  to  disturb  the  class. 

You  call  the  children  to  lessons,  the  class  assembles, 
each  child  stands  in  his  place;  the  body  is  upright, 
hands  hanging  by  the  sides,  and  all  parts,  including  the 
eyes  and  fingers,  are  motionless.     It  is  assumed  that 


140  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

the  children  are  healthy,  showing  signs  of  good  nutri- 
tion, their  faces  having  a  lively  appearance  and  chang- 
ing expression ;  thus  we  know  that  the  motionless 
state  is  due  to  your  having  stopped  their  movements, 
and  not  to  exhaustion.  There  may  be  one  boy  who  is 
not  motionless;  his  hands  and  fingers  move,  the  left 
hand  goes  into  his  pocket,  his  eyes  move  away  from 
you,  when  you  look  at  him,  his  head  is  not  kept 
erect.  Following  the  indications  and  signs  seen  in 
the  boy,  you  empty  his  left  pocket  and  confiscate 
the  top  and  crackers,  which  prevented  the  signs  of 
attentiveness. 

Do  not  expect  the  motionless  condition  of  the  body 
to  be  quite  complete,  but  observe  what  parts  move. 
It  is  one  thing  to  stop  these  movements,  and  another 
to  hide  them ;  and  again,  it  is  a  different  mode  of 
management  to  give  the  hands  something  to  do.  I 
have  seen  a  nervous  man  stand  upon  a  stool  in  the 
middle  of  a  large  room  and  make  a  capital  speech. 
As  soon  as  he  began  to  speak,  he  put  his  hands 
behind  him,  and  they  were  no  more  seen  by  those 
in  front.  I  walked  behind  the  orator  to  see  what 
his  hands  were  doing;  the  fingers  were  working  away 
at  a  great  rate,  as  long  as  he  continued  to  speak. 
In  like  manner,  when  looking  at  an  attentive  class 
in  school,  "full  face,"  as  they  stand,  with  hands 
behind,  apparently  motionless,  I  have  taken  a  "  pro- 
file  view,"    so    as   to    see    what   the    hands    might    be 


SOMI-:   GENERAL   CONDITIONS   IN   CHILDREN         14I 

doing.  Do  not  say,  then,  that  "fidgetiness  causes  in- 
attention," but  try  and  describe  what  you  actually 
see  in  the  children  ;  thus  you  may  study  the  condi- 
tion and  its  causes  by  the  scientific  method. 

You  see  a  fidgety  child ;  observe  the  movements 
which  indicate  the  fidgetiness,  note  the  parts  moving, 
limbs,  hands,  feet,  either  on  one  or  on  both  sides ; 
look  at  the  head,  face,  eyes,  etc.  Then,  when  think- 
ing about  the  child,  you  recall  other  examples  of  ex- 
cess of  movement.  The  fidgetiness  you  observe  is 
a  physical  fact,  a  number  of  movements  not  con- 
trolled like  those  of  other  children  ;  look  to  the  ante- 
cedents, and  notice  under  what  circumstances  the 
movements  are  increased  or  diminished.  The  move- 
ments indicating  fidgetiness  may  occur  in  healthy 
children  when  exhausted,  when  long  confined  in  close 
rooms,  or  when  wanting  food. 

Say,  you  are  thinking  about  the  methods  to  be 
pursued  with  a  boy  who  is  often  fidgety  and  pee- 
vish. You  observe  the  movements  of  the  child  which 
indicate  the  fidgetiness,  the  parts  that  move,  whether 
hands,  fingers,  or  feet,  on  one  or  both  sides,  looking 
also  at  the  head,  eyes,  face,  etc.  You  may  find  him 
apt  to  mutter  and  complain,  silly  and  childish.  Ob- 
serve him  carefully ;  all  reflex  actions  are  wrong. 
Call  him,  and  his  head  turns  away ;  when  you  speak 
to  him,  no  reply  comes ;  when  you  say  nothing,  out 
come    his    complaints.      His    phrases   are    simple,    dis- 


142  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

connected,  and  like  those  used  by  a  younger  child. 
The  boy  is  for  the  time  reduced,  or  turned  back,  to  the 
brain-condition  of  a  baby.  There  are  also  some  spon- 
taneous movements,  which  are  but  little  controlled  by 
his  surroundings.  Look  out  for  the  signs  of  fatigue 
and  exhaustion  in  such  a  child,  noting  whether  exhaus- 
tion precedes  or  follows  the  condition  described.  Irrita- 
bility of  temper  often  results  from  previous  exhaustion, 
and  it  produces  exhaustion.  This  is  an  important  point, 
to  be  decided  in  each  case  by  direct  observation ;  it 
will  be  obvious  that  your  practice  must  be  determined 
by  observation  as  to  which  condition  precedes. 

As  opposed  to  attention  and  a  quiet  condition  of 
aptitude  for  mental  work,  we  speak  of  inattention  and 
fidgetiness.  Some  of  the  best-brained,  quick  children 
are  almost  always  fidgety :  though  they  work  well,  they 
have  more  spontaneous  movement  than  others,  almost 
up  to  the  point  of  adolescence  :  such  are  specially  seen 
among  the  quick  children  of  the  nervous  type. 

Inattention  may  be  due  to  conditions  in  the  brain 
itself  or  its  blood-supply.  Prolonged  abstinence  from 
food  renders  the  blood  poor ;  a  heavy  meal  draws 
blood  from  the  brain  to  the  stomach ;  a  close  atmos- 
phere renders  the  blood  impure.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  brain  may  be  fatigued  from  prolonged  work :  I 
suspect,  however,  that  inattention  is  much  more  often 
due  to  other  things  impressing  the  child,  not  leaving 
his  brain  clear  and  apt  for  mental  work. 


SOME  GENERAL   CONDITIONS   IN   CHILDREN         I43 

Fatigue  is  indicated  by  the  small  amount  of  energy 
expended  in  movement,  such  action  as  occurs  being 
more  or  less  useless  and  performed  only  under  a 
strong  stimulus,  while  it  may  be  accompanied  by 
extra-movements,  but  useless  acts.  Thus  the  child 
lounges  in  an  arm-chair  and  does  not  get  up  when 
told  to,  but  fidgets  and  grumbles. 

Among  the  signs  which  indicate  fatigue,  I  may 
mention  the  slight  amount  of  force  expended  in  move- 
ment ;  there  appears  to  be  a  lessened  total  of  force 
passing  from  the  nerve-system  to  the  muscles.  There 
is  often  asymmetry  of  posture  and  movements,  seen  in 
the  balance  of  the  head,  the  spine,  and  the  hands. 
There  may  be  accompanying  irritability,  much  move- 
ment upon  the  slightest  touch,  or  movements  apparently 
spontaneous.  As  you  look  at  the  child,  you  see  too 
little  movement  on  the  average,  or  occasional  jerky 
movements  not  controlled  by  circumstances.  The  eyes 
may  wander  and  not  be  distinctly  fixed  by  the  sight  of 
objects  around,  the  face  is  toneless,  less  lively-looking, 
less  mobile ;  possibly  there  may  be  fulness  under  either 
eye.  There  is  asymmetry  of  action ;  the  fatigued 
nerve-centres  being  unequally  exhausted.  Spontaneous 
finger-twitches,  like  those  of  younger  children,  may  be 
seen,  and  slight  movements  may  be  excited  by  noises. 
The  head  is  often  held  on  one  side,  the  arms,  when 
extended,  are  not  hold  horizontal ;  usually  the  left  is 
lower  ;  the  hand  balances  in  the  weak  type  of  posture. 


144  '^^^  STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

often  again  more  markedly  on  the  left  side.  The  direct 
effects  of  gravity  determine  the  position  of  the  body 
to  a  greater  extent  than  in  the  condition  of  strength ; 
hence,  the  spine  is  bent.  If  this  condition  tends  to 
pass  on  into  sleep,  the  eyelids  are  closed. 

Fatigue  is  not  itself  unhealthy ;  both  adults  and 
school-children  must  learn  to  work,  and  fatigue  naturally 
follows;  what  is  needed  after  healthy  fatigue,  is  rest 
and  recreation,  renewing  the  power  of  the  brain.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  fatigue  lasts  day  after  day,  a  more  per- 
manent condition  of  exhaustion  of  great  importance  may 
supervene. 

Case  20.    A  boy  exhausted  and  very  dull. 

A  boy,  twelve  years  old,  showed  weak  balance  of  the 
hands,  with  lordosis  ;  his  face  was  wanting  in  brightness, 
with  fulness  under  the  eyes,  indicating  exhaustion. 
His  speech  was  good,  and  he  presented  no  defect  in 
head,  palate,  or  body.  The  teacher  called  him  an  idiot, 
who  could  learn  nothing.  I  saw  no  signs  of  organic 
brain-defect,  but  marked  indications  of  exhaustion.  On 
inquiring  it  appeared  that  the  boy  was  kept  at  work 
at  home  after  school  till  midnight. 

Exhaustion  is  an  extreme  condition  of  fatigue,  in 
which  movement  is  lessened.  The  face  becomes  tone- 
less and  devoid  of  fine  mobile  expression,  the  circular 
muscle  of  the  eye  is  relaxed,  the  face  may  be  lengthened 
from  relaxation  of  its  muscles  and  slight  falling  of  the 
jaw;  the  ordinary  movements  of  expression  are  not  ex- 


SOME   GENERAL  CONDITIONS    I\   (•|IILDRF:X         145 

cited  by  the  ordinary  stimuli,  and  such  movements  as 
do  occur  are  slow  and  laboured.  A  strong  stimulus  is 
required  to  induce  the  child  to  hold  out  his  hands,  and 
then  the  posture  is  the  feeble  hand.  Sighing  and 
yawning  are  common.  Speech  is  slow,  and  the  tone  of 
the  voice  is  altered.  In  some  cases,  finger-twitching, 
especially  of  separate  fingers,  indicates  extreme  exhaus- 
tion and  irritability. 

Irritability  is  expressed  in  a  child,  when  a  slight 
noise  makes  him  start ;  this  is  a  reflex  movement  in 
excess,  a  reflex  action,  that  does  not  occur  in  perfect 
health  on  so  slight  a  stimulus.  In  irritability  other 
stimuli,  besides  sound,  may  produce  excessive  reflex 
action ;  a  touch  upon  the  shoulder  causes  a  sudden 
movement.  Not  only  is  the  amount  of  reflex  movement 
excessive  and  out  of  proportion  to  the  stimulus,  but  the 
kind  of  movement  may  differ  from  that  usually  following 
such  a  stimulus  in  health.  A  child  three  years  of  age, 
when  irritable,  may  turn  away  his  head  from  a  familiar 
object,  or  from  the  sight  of  his  food,  and  say  "  No,  no  "  ; 
here  the  sight  of  the  object,  instead  of  causing  a  reflex 
movement  of  the  head,  eyes,  and  hands  towards  the 
object,  moves  all  from  it.  The  irritability  of  the  nerve- 
centres  is  indicated  by  movements  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion from  that  which  the  same  stimulus  would  produce 
in  health.  Besides  these  reflex  signs,  we  find  the  voice 
altered ;  when  spoken  to,  he  may  answer  sharply  ;  the 
motor   force,    generally,   is    lessened    and    irregular    in 

L 


146  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

kind,  twitching  irregular  movements  are  not  uncommon. 
Nervous  children  often  show  marked  signs  of  irrita- 
bility ;  the  spontaneous  postures  assumed  are  those  of 
fatigue,  with  the  addition  of  slight  irregular  twitching 
movements.  If  this  condition  lasts  long,  nutrition  is 
lowered  and  wasting  occurs.  Abnormal  conditions  in 
the  body,  particularly  in  the  stomach,  may  render  the 
child  irritable. 

Teachers  have  said  that  exhaustion  in  children  is 
often  due  more  to  mismanagement  at  home,  rather 
than  to  work  in  school.  That  may  be  so  in  some  in- 
stances.    Let  me  sketch  a  case  for  you. 

Case  21.    Girl  tired  in  home  life. 

A  girl,  twelve  years  old,  comes  to  school  in  the  morn- 
ing with  too  little  spontaneous  movement ;  the  head  is 
not  held  erect ;  the  face  is  pale ;  the  muscles  around 
the  eyes  are  relaxed ;  the  eyes  are  wandering  and  not 
fixed  or  controlled  in  their  movements  by  sights  and 
sounds  ;  the  free  hand  is  in  the  feeble  posture.  The 
attention  is  not  readily  fixed ;  she  is  fidgety  and  rest- 
less ;  such  signs  indicate  exhaustion  and  irritability.  We 
assume  that  the  school  is  well  arranged,  and  the  work 
suitable.  Later  in  the  morning  the  child  brightens  up 
and  works  better,  so  that,  at  the  close  of  morning  les- 
sons, she  appears  in  better  condition  than  when  she 
came  under  school  influences.  Now,  if  the  teacher 
knows,  from  questions  put,  or  other  sources  of  informa- 
tion, that  it  is  not  the  school  work,  that  produces  ex- 


SOME   GENERAL   COXDITIONS    I\   CHILDREN         147 

haustion  and  depression,  should  the  matter  end  there  ? 
If  the  teacher's  opinion  is  founded  on  facts  observed, 
would  not  any  reasonable  loving  parent  allow  a  friendly 
remonstrance  or  suggestion  ?  If  such  conditions  con- 
tinue in  the  child,  may  she  not  exert  a  harmful  moral 
influence  in  the  school,  such  as  may  justify  a  stronger 
remark  on  the  part  of  the  school  manager  ?  Still,  it 
cannot  be  expected  that  parents  will  readily  listen  to 
vague  reports  of  their  children,  or  to  such  as  are  not 
founded  on  precise  and  definite  grounds. 

The  scientific  observation  of  children  has  other 
advantages  than  the  development  of  methods  of  public 
education ;  from  the  careful  study  of  recorded  observa- 
tions we  may  improve  the  basis  for  research  in  physio- 
logical psychology. 

All  outward  expression  of  mental  states  and  mental 
action  is  by  visible  movements  and  results  of  move- 
ment ;  it  is  possible  then,  by  analysis  of  such  modes 
of  expression,  to  determine  something  of  the  modes  of 
brain-action,  corresponding  to  mental  states. 

In  sleep,  or  a  state  of  healthy  unconsciousness,  we 
see  that  no  movement  is  occurring  in  the  limbs  ;  the 
pupils  are  small ;  the  movements  of  breathing  are  quiet 
and  uniform ;  low  sounds  do  not  produce  action  or  any 
subsequent  expression.  After  such  full  deep  sleep  we 
see  many  spontaneous  movements.  We  conclude,  then, 
that  sleep  is  a  condition  of  healthy  rest,  in  which  the 
brain  does  not   receive   stimulation    from   the   outside ; 


148  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

that  its  tissue  is  simply  living  and  growing  in  a  healthy 
manner,  and  storing  up  healthy  force,  which  we  see 
displayed  in  spontaneous  movements  after  sleep. 

Contrast  this  brain-state  with  that  seen  in  a  storm  of 
passion.  Bain  says  :  ^  "  The  physical  manifestations  of 
anger,  over  and  above  the  embodiment  of  the  antece- 
dent pain,  are  (i)  general  excitement;  (2)  an  outburst 
of  activity  ;  (3)  deranged  organic  functions;  (4)  a  char- 
acteristic expression  and  attitude  of  body  ;  and  (5),  in 
the  completed  act  of  revenge,  a  burst  of  exultation." 
Sir  Charles  Bell  ^  gives  the  following  description  :  "  In 
rage  the  features  are  unsteady.  The  eyeballs  are  seen 
largely;  they  roll  and  are  inflamed.  The  fr^nt  is  alter- 
nately knit  and  raised  in  furrows  by  the  motion  of  the 
eyebrows;  the  nostrils  are  inflated  to  the  utmost;  the 
lips  are  swelled,  and,  being  drawn  by  the  muscles,  open 
the  corners  of  the  mouth.  The  whole  visage  is  some- 
times pale,  sometimes  turgid,  dark,  and  almost  livid; 
the  words  are  delivered  strongly  through  the  fixed 
teeth;  the  hair  is  fixed  on  end  like  one  distracted,  and 
every  joint  should  seem  to  curse  and  ban." 

At  the  commencement  of  an  attack  of  rage,  there 
may  be  momentary  paleness :  this  is  the  best  time  for 
a  chance  of  quieting  the  child.  Then  the  breathing  is 
seen  to  be  quickened  and  the  face  flushes;  the  breath- 
ing is  embarrassed,  and  the  veins  in  the  forehead,  face, 

1  "  Mental  and  Moral  .Science,"  1872,  p.  261.  By  Alexander  Bain.  Pub- 
lished by  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London;   D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York, 

2  Op.  at.,  p.  21. 


SOME   GENERAL   CONDITIONS    IN   CHII.DRKN         149 

and  neck  swell  out  in  consequence,  while  the  lips  are 
swollen  and  prominent.  The  eyes  may  move  much, 
not  being  under  control ;  while  the  hands  are  opened 
and  closed,  and  gesticulate,  and  the  lij^s  may  be  seen 
to  twitch  at  the  angles  of  the  mouth.  The  storm  of 
movement  may  spread  to  muscles  moving  the  larger 
joints  of  the  limbs,  the  elbows,  shoulders,  and  knees,  as 
seen  in  biting  and  stamping.  The  order  of  occurrence 
of  the  signs  is,  first  pallor,  then  flushing,  and  the  con- 
gestion of  face  from  impeded  breathing  ;  this  is  the 
order  of  events  most  common  in  an  epileptic  fit.  The 
movements  are  first  in  sm.all  parts,  afterwards  in  larger 
parts  of  the  body.  All  this  indicates  a  spreading  area  of 
brain  in  strong  action,  sending  out  force  to  the  muscles  ; 
such  brain-action  not  being  under  any  kind  of  control 
from  without.  The  exhaustion  that  follows  corresponds 
with  the  large  area  of  brain,  that  has  been  discharging 
motor  energy,  and  wasting  it.  Here,  as  in  other  cases,  a 
brain,  not  well  under  control,  wastes  energy  that  good 
guidance  might  have  saved  ;  good  training  is  an  econ- 
**bmy  of  force  to  all,  and  specially  in  the  weak  children. 
What  good,  what  advantage,  is  there  in  these  special 
modes  of  describing  what  we  see .''  Modes  of  descrip- 
tion here  used  are  such  as  allow  of  comparisons  being 
made.  We  translate  abstract  qualities,  such  as  "joy," 
into  concrete  terms,  such  as  movements,  or  conditions 
of  form  or  development.  We  translate  the  terms,  used 
to  describe  the  abstract  property,  into  other  terms,  the 


150  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

expression  of  the  abstract.  The  term  "happiness"  is 
intended  to  indicate  a  certain  condition  of  feeling,  which 
we  all,  more  or  less,  understand.  The  thing  happiness 
is  an  abstraction  ;  but  if  we  can  define  an  expression  of 
happiness  in  man,  we  can  deal  with  the  material  expres- 
sion of  happiness,  analyse,  and  study  it. 

Having  these  descriptions  before  us,  we  can  make 
some  comparisons  or  analogies.  In  laughter,  which 
is  an  expression  of  joy,  or  happiness,  the  angles  of 
the  mouth  are  drawn  upwards ;  this  is  the  very  oppo- 
site to  the  expression  of  physical  suffering.  By  defin- 
ing the  expression  of  the  abstract  thing,  "  happiness," 
in  terms  of  motor  signs,  we  find  problems  to  deal  with, 
capable  of  physical  investigation. 

All  expression  of  mind  and  mental  states  is  by  move- 
ments and  results  of  movement.  You  speak  of  intelli- 
gence, happiness,  joy ;  for  the  purposes  of  scientific 
study,  I  would  rather  that  you  described  the  series 
of  movements,  which  indicate  these  conditions,  observ- 
ing their  antecedents  and  effects.  Speaking  of  abstract 
qualities  of  the  mind,  you  use,  for  the  sake  of  simpli-^ 
city,  terms  which  indicate  the  aggregate  condition ;  try 
to  describe  the  signs  you  see,  and  to  describe  them  in 
terms  indicating  facts  whose  causes  you  may  deal  with. 
It  may  be  said  that  "  fidgetiness  is  caused  by  inatten- 
tion, and  leads  to  forgetfulness."  Each  of  these  condi- 
tions is  complex,  and  may  result  from  complex  causes ; 
it  is  necessary,  in  scientific  procedure,  to  try  and  ana- 


SOME  CIEXERAL   CONDITIONS   IN   CHILDREN 


151 


lyse  each,  and  describe  it  in  terms  expressing  physical 
signs.  Sometimes  children  get  into  a  state  of  great 
mental  excitement  without  passion  ;  I  have  seen  this 
during  a  recitation  in  school  and  will  describe  a  case. 

Case  22.    Boy  showing  mental  excitement. 

The  boy's  speech  became  rapid,  almost  incessant, 
without  intervals,  the  words  were  sometimes  repeated  ; 
there  was  much  movement  in  his  face,  and  the  pupils 
were  dilated.  The  right  foot  was  planted  forward,  the 
right  arm  raised  free  from  the  body,  and  the  fingers 
were  much  moved,  while  the  left  hand  rested  firmly  on 
the  table  at  his  side ;  his  eyes  moved  much,  as  he  was 
speaking,  and  the  eyebrows  were  knit  together ;  the 
head  was  extended  backward,  so  that  his  face  was 
turned  upwards,  and  his  eyes  were  raised  above  those 
to  whom  he  was  speaking. 

Headaches  are  of  common  occurrence  in  children  of 
school  age ;  they  are  more  frequently  met  with  in  girls 
than  boys,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  of  58 
cases  in  my  practice  at  the  East  London  Hospital  for 
Children. 

TABLE  VI 

Distribution  of  Cases  of  Headache  according  to  Age 


Ages 

3-4 

4-5 

5-6 

6-7 

7-8 

8-9 

9-10 

lO-II 

11-12 

12-13 

13-14 

Boys,         25     .     . 
Girls,         3i     .     . 

I 
0 

2 
2 

2 
3 

8 
I 

2 
2 

I 
5 

2 
5 

2 

4 

4 
2 

I 

4 

0    ' 
5 

Total,    58     .     . 

I 

4 

S 

9 

4 

6 

7 

6 

6 

5 

5 

152  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

As  a  group  these  children  present  the  general 
characteristics,  described  as  common  among  nervous 
children.  See  Chapter  IX.  In  five  of  the  cases  re- 
ferred to  above,  the  child  described  "  sparks,  colours, 
or  other  perversion  of  sight"  during  the  attacks  of 
head  pain;  sometimes  distinct  objects  are  seen,  such 
as  heads  of  animals  or  men ;  at  night  he  may  see 
"a  lot  of  people  coming  to  kill  him,"  a  policeman, 
or  other  source  of  terror.  There  is  often  a  history 
of  inheritance  of  headaches ;  among  the  58  cases 
above,  the  mother  suffered  similarly  in  24,  and  the 
father  in  eight  cases ;  when  the  father  and  mother 
have  both  suffered  from  sick  headaches,  there  is 
great  probability  that  their  children  will  also,  and 
they  should  be  trained  and  helped  to  bear  pain. 
Headaches  are  often  followed  by  sickness ;  the  avoid- 
ance of  fatigue  and  exhaustion  is  the  best  means  of 
prevention. 

Children  with  flat  eyes  (hypermetropia)  may  suffer 
from  headaches,  in  part  due  to  straining  their  sight 
in  reading,  from  want  of  proper  glasses. 

Headaches  in  children  are  very  common ;  they  are 
of  much  importance,  when  accompanying  the  physi- 
cal signs  of  exhaustion.  I  do  not  often  ask  children, 
if  they  have  headaches,  and  place  but  little  value  on 
descriptions  of  their  own  feelings ;  but  I  constantly 
look  for  the  signs  of  fatigue  or  exhaustion.  When 
the  child  appears  well  nourished  and   there  is  no   fa- 


SOMK   (GENERAL  COXDITlUNS   IN    Llill.DKEN         153 

tigue,  headaches  are  of  less  importance.  When  I 
see  a  child  presenting  the  signs  of  exhaustion,  a 
toneless  face,  wandering  eyes,  fulness  under  the 
eyes,  many  points  of  asymmetry  of  pt)sture,  finger- 
twitching,  and  ground  teeth,  I  put  down  such  a  child 
as  requiring  special  care  and  careful  education. 
Judge  of  the  children  by  what  can  be  seen  in  them, 
not  by  their  description  of  feelings. 

Case  23.     Headaches  in  a  nervous  child. 

A  girl,  thirteen  years  of  age,  suffered  from  frequent 
headaches,  during  which  she  saw  coloured  stars,  which 
sometimes  preceded  the  head  pain.  She  was  a  well- 
made  but  nervous  child ;  her  hands,  when  held  out, 
balanced  in  the  "  nervous  posture,"  and  the  fingers 
twitched,  there  was  fulness  under  the  eyes  from  re- 
laxation of  the  muscles  surrounding  them.  Three 
years  before,  she  was  disabled  for  three  months  by 
chorea.  It  is  probable  that  the  recurrent  headaches 
will  continue  for  some  years ;  she  must  learn  to  bear 
them.  It  is  not  to  be  expected,  that  she  can  attend 
to  her  work  in  school  or  home  lessons,  when  attacks 
of  headache  are  troubling  her.  If  training  can  re- 
move the  nerve-signs  described,  the  child  will  be 
the  better. 


CHAPTER   IX 

Types  of  Childhood  ;  and  Groups  of  Children 
below  the  normal 

The  descriptions  of  Groups  of  children  here  given, 
and  the  evidence  on  the  Propositions  concerning  child- 
hood in  Chapter  XIII.,  are  based  upon  the  experience 
gained  from  100,000  children  whom  I  examined  indi- 
vidually in  schools.  The  results  of  that  inquiry  are 
pubhshed  in  a  report^  which  affords  a  large  amount 
of  information  concerning  conditions  of  children. 

Groups  of  children  are  classified  and  described,  so 
as  to  enable  me  to  present,  in  due  course,  the  im- 
portant Class  of  "  Children  who  appear  to  require 
special  care  and  training,"  to  whom  I  would  direct 
particular  attention.  It  has  always  been  difficult  to 
define  such  children  by  what  we  can  see  in  them ; 
but  it  now  seems  possible  to  give  a  sufificiently  clear 
description    of    the    Groups    of    children    included    in 

1  Report  on  the  scientific  study  of  the  mental  and  physical  conditions  of 
childhood,  with  particular  reference  to  children  of  defective  constitution  ; 
and  with  recommendations  as  to  education  and  training.  Based  on  the 
Examination  of  100,000  children  seen  in  and  near  London,  1888-94. 

Published  at  Parke's  Museum,  Margaret  Street,  London,  W.  Office  of 
the  Childhood  Society.     The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 

154 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  I  55 

that  class,  and  to  show  the  means  of  describing  an 
individual  child,  indicating  the  points  in  which  he 
may  need  special  training. 

The  groups,  here  arranged,  are  of  course  arbitrary; 
in  studying  such  groups  the  care  of  the  individual 
child  should  never  be  lost  sight  of.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  a  dull  child  at  one  time  classed  as 
"  delicate  with  abnormal  nerve-signs "  may  another 
year  be  classed  as  "dull  without  defects,"  if  the  care 
taken  has  been  accompanied  by  successful  results ; 
then  we  may  hope  that  further  mental  training  may 
make  him  a  bright  child,  or  average  in  mental  power. 
The  plan  of  describing  children  on  schedules,  or 
their  defects  on  the  cards,  will  keep  before  you  the 
individual  and  the  points  in  his  case,  to  which  atten- 
tion should  be  directed ;  while  the  successive  sched- 
ules of  the  same  child  taken  at  different  dates  will 
show  the  progress  made. 

Normal  Children.  —  From  the  school  point  of  view, 
children  may  be  classed  as  normal,  if  not  found  to 
be  dull  and  backward  for  their  age  in  lessons  and 
in  mental  ability  ;  while  to  observation  they  present 
the  signs  of  healthy  development  in  body,  in  nerve- 
signs,  and  in  nutrition.  Of  course  such  children 
differ  in  individual  characteristics,  and  in  some  of 
the  general  conditions  described  in  Chapter  VIII. 
Again,  some  are  above  the  average  in  their  type  of 
perfection   in    development    of    physical    and    mental 


156  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

power.  Thus  "  Normal  children "  includes,  as  a 
group,  all  children  not  presenting  any  visible  defect 
in  development,  nutrition,  or  physical  condition,  with 
no  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and  not  found  by  the  teach- 
ers to  be  dull  or  backward  mentally. 

I  suppose  there  is  no  such  being  as  "a  perfect 
child,"  but  it  may  assist  to  form  a  useful  mental 
ideal,  if  we  realise  the  characteristics  necessary  to  a 
perfect  type  of  childhood.  His  body  must  be  well 
proportioned,  the  head  of  good  size  and  well  shapen, 
with  each  feature  well  made ;  while  the  stature  and 
nutrition  of  the  body  reach  a  normal  standard.  (See 
weight  and  height.)  Sight  and  hearing  should  be 
perfect.  The  signs  of  brain-action  must  be  good  in 
the  movements  seen,  with  sufficient  spontaneity  of 
action  according  to  age;  expression  lively,  speech 
clear  and  distinct,  while,  on  mental  examination,  he 
must  show  intelligent  appreciation,  judgment,  and  a 
proper  use  of  words  in  language,  expressing  thought 
and  the  faculty  of  thinking  and  remembering.  The 
physiologist  will  require  to  know  more  than  this 
before  classing  him  as  of  a  perfect  type,  and  will 
inquire  as  to  his  ancestry  and  inheritance  through 
each  parent,  as  to  what  stock  he  comes  from  and  the 
life-history  of  his  collateral  relations,  brothers,  sisters, 
and  cousins.  Habits  in  social  life,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  some  taste  and  enjoyment  of  healthy  pursuits 
add  further  indications  of  a  probable  success  in  life. 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  1 57 

A    NORMAL   CHILD 

SCHEDULE    EOR    REPORT   ON    A    SCHOOL 
CHH.D 

Number  24.  Name.     Jolin  Smith. 

Age  last  birthday.    9  years.        Place  in  School.    Standard  V. 

A.   Body  :  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.  Circumference  21.5  inches;  transverse  13  5,  an- 
tero-posterior  13  inches.  \\'ell  shapen.  No  ridges 
or  bosses. 

Face.  Eye-openings  wide  ;  mouth  of  good  size,  lips 
well  cut. 

Ears.  Well  shapen,  complete  in  all  parts  ;  not  out- 
standing. 

Nose.     Bony  bridge  of  nose  well  developed. 

Palate.  Sufificiently  broad ;  well  shaped.  Teeth  not 
crowded. 

Growth.  Good;  height  51  inches.  Light  hair,  fair 
complexion. 

/>'.    Nerve-signs :    Postures,    movements,    action.       Ex- 
pression. 

General  balance  of  body.  Stands  well,  feet  together, 
legs  straight  and  knees  not  bent,  body  erect. 

Expression.  Bright  and  changeful.  An  intelligent-look- 
ing face. 

O.  Oculi.  Good  tone  al)Out  eyelids;  no  bagginess  of 
under-lids. 

Eye-7novements.  Fixes  eyes  well ;  they  follow  a  mov- 
ing object  accurately. 

Head-balance.     Head  held  well  up. 

Hands.  Balance  straight  on  level  with  shoulders  ;  fin- 
gers steady. 

Response  active  and  accurate.    Siglit  and  hearing  good. 


158  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

C.  Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.  Healthy  and  well 
nourished.  Weight  60  lb.  Good  colour  in  face 
and  lips. 

School  Report.  A  good  child  :  is  bright  and  intelligent. 
Recites  well,  quick  at  arithmetic,  is  rather  high  in 
school  for  age.     Attendance  regular. 

Report  on  Child.  A  healthy,  well-made  boy :  he  seems 
well  trained  in  action  of  body  and  in  mental  power. 
He  is  likely  to  profit  by  higher  education  when  old 
enough. 

Date. 

There  is  a  class  of  children,  commonly  met  with  in 
every  school,  termed  "nervous  children"  ;  I  mean  such 
as  are  apt  to  complain  of  headaches,  are  difficult  to  get 
off  to  sleep,  bad  sleepers,  talking  at  night  and  grinding 
their  teeth,  while  in  the  morning  they  are  tired  and  not 
ready  for  breakfast.  They  are  often  bright  enough 
mentally  and  affectionate  in  disposition,  but  apt  to  be 
irritable  and  passionate  "^nd  too  emotional.  There  are 
children  who  are  delicate  without  having  any  disease ; 
who  are  never  laid  up  with  any  definite  illness,  but  they 
are  not  strong,  cannot  walk  far  without  getting  tired ; 
some  days  they  are  too  tired  to  do  anything  and  must 
rest ;  capricious  in  appetite,  yet  sometimes  ravenous,  but 
losing  weight.  A  typical  nervous  child  is  generally 
well  made  in  body,  with  a  good  head  and  well-cut  feat- 
ures, a  fine  skin  and  light  complexion ;  she  may  be  tall 
and  rather  thin,  with  subnormal  body  weight.     In  the 


TYPES   OK  CHILDHOOD  I  59 

nerve-signs  we  see  indications  of  weakness  and  over- 
spontaneity. 

The  genera]  balance  of  the  body,  as  the  child  stands, 
is  usually  asymmetrical,  with  the  head  slightly  drooped 
and  inclined  to  one  side  ;  while  the  spine  is  perhaps  bent 
a  little  to  one  side,  with  unequal  shoulders,  and  the  feet 
unequally  planted.  The  eyes  wander  much,  in  place  of 
being  directed  to  objects  and  fully  controlled  through 
sight  and  a  spoken  word.  In  the  face,  expression  may 
be  somewhat  diminished,  with  fulness  under  the  eyes 
indicating  fatigue.  When  the  hands  are  held  out  in 
front,  asymmetry  in  balance  of  the  arms  is  frequent, 
the  left  hand  usually  being  held  lower,  while  the  "  ner- 
vous hand-posture  "  is  marked  more  on  the  left  than  on 
the  right  (see  Fig.  6).  As  the  hands  are  held  out,  the 
shoulders  and  upper  part  of  the  spine  move  backwards 
with  an  increased  curve  of  the  forward  bend  in  the 
loins  (lordosis),  as  a  compensation  in  balance  owing  to 
weakness  of  the  back  muscles. 

The  fingers  probably  show  twitching  movements,  if 
they  are  held  separate  from  one  another,  so  as  to  be 
free  to  move. 

These  signs  show  weakness,  with  over-mobility ;  and, 
if  the  condition  is  accompanied  by  a  body-weight  fall- 
ing month  by  month  or  week  by  week,  the  child  may, 
if  overworked  or  if  placed  under  mental  stress  by  cir- 
cumstances, or  if  frightened,  pass  on  to  the  state  called 
chorea.      In    mental    habit    such    children    are   usually 


l60  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

quick  in  learning;,  talkative,  pkiyful,  and  often  laugh- 
ing ;  in  social  life,  they  are  gregarious,  seeking  one 
another's  company,  and,  as  they  are  usually  imitative, 
may  prove  a  source  of  mental  excitement  to  one  another. 
On  looking  further  at  such  a  child,  you  will  probably 
find  that  the  face  is  the  best  nourished  part  of  the  body, 
the  limbs  being  thin ;  the  teeth  are  very  likely  flattened 
at  their  tips  from  the  constant  habit  of  tooth-grinding. 
Appetite  is  very  variable  ;  these  nervous  children  are 
very  difficult  to  feed ;  at  times  appetite  fails  much,  and 
again  at  another  time  they  are  voracious  though  they 
may  still  lose  in  weight.  The  care  of  such  children 
will  be  referred  to  in  Chapter  XII. 

Card    showing   the  defects    observed    in    a    nervous 
girl  as  described  above,  and  given  in  Schedule  25. 

A   NERVOUS   CHILD 

Number  25.  Name.     Sarah  Jones. 

Age  last  birthday.    1 2  years.     Place  in  school.    Standard  VII. 

A.   Body :  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.     Circumference  21.5  inches;  forehead  wide  and 

well  shapen. 
Face.     Eye- openings  large  ;  features  well  proportioned. 
Ears.     Normal. 

Nose.     Normal ;  lips  usually  closed. 
Palate.     Normal. 
Growth.      Rather   tall   for  age ;    rather  slightly  built. 

Height  57.5  inches. 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  l6l 

B.    Nerve-signs :     Postures,    movements,    action.      Ex- 
pression. 

Getieral  balance  of  body.  Attitude  asymmetrical :  left 
shoulder  lower  than  right,  feet  not  equally  planted. 

Expression.    A  little  dull,  and  wanting  in  changefulness. 

O.  Ociili.  Fulness  under  eyes  ;  this  disappears  momen- 
tarily in  smiling. 

Eye-movements.  Eyes  wander,  but  fix  on  an  object  if 
she  is  told  to. 

Head-balance.      Slightly  drooped  and  inclined  to  left. 

Hands.  Left  balances  lower  than  right,  each  is  in  the 
"nervous  posture,"  especially  marked  in  left.  Sep- 
arate fingers  twitch. 

When  hands  are  held  out,  the  shoulders  fall  backward 
and  the  spine  is  bent  forward  at  the  loins  (lordosis). 

C.    Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.     Rather  thin  and  pale. 
Weight  75  lb. 

School  Report.  Quick  at  lessons ;  recites  well.  Talka- 
tive in  school,  playful  and  often  laughing.  Is  fond  of 
the  society  of  other  children  like  herself. 

Report  on  Child.  This  may  be  said  to  be  a  nen-ous 
child  :  well  made  in  bodily  development,  but  rather 
under  weight  for  her  height ;  though  quick  and  bright 
mentally,  she  shows  so  many  abnormal  nerve-signs 
that,  unless  she  is  brought  under  better  control,  she  is 
.  likely  to  become  an  hysterical  girl  after  leaving  school 
at  fourteen  years.  She  needs  careful  training  in  ])hysi- 
cal  exercises  to  remove  each  fault  in  detail. 


l62 


THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 


Card:  Showing  the  Defects  Observed  in  a  Nervous  Girl,  as 
Described  in  Schedule  25 


School Card  No 

Sf- VII Reg.  No.  ...  25. 

A^e 12 


A  Development  Defects 

a     1  Cranium 

2  Large 

3  Small 

4  Bossed 

5  Forehead 

6  Frontal  ridge 


47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 


oculi  li 


icnt" 


Hand  weak 
Hand  nervous - 
Fin"cr  twitch CG 


7i  54     Other  Nerve-signs 


h  11  External  Ear 

c   12  Epicanthis        . 

d  13  Palate 

14  Narrow 

15  V-shaped 

16  Arched 

17  Cleft 

18  Other  types 
e   19  Nasal  Bones 

/  20  Growth  Small 

(J  21  Other  Develmt.  Dfts. 


4! 
44 
45 
40 


'^cr.cral  \. 


hxprcEsion 
Frontals  overact 
Corrugation 


c 

D 

-NUTRITION- 
DULL 

E 

Eye-cases 

64 

Squint 

65 

Glasses  plus 

66 

Glasses  minus 

67 

Myopia,  no  glasses 

68 

Cornea  disease 

69 

Eye,  lost  accident 

70 

Eye,  lost  disease 

F 

Rickets 

C 

Exceptional  Children 

i   82 

Cripples 

A  ^  ([)  D    E  F    G 


TYPES   OF  CHILDHOOD  163 

Dull  and  Backward  Children.  —  In  the  Report  on 
School  Children  ^  all  pupils  were  included  in  this  group 
whom  the  teachers  reported  as  dull  or  below  the  aver- 
age in  ability  for  school  work  ;  by  far  the  largest  num- 
ber of  them  were  first  noted  on  account  of  points 
observed  below  the  normal  in  development,  nutrition,  or 
in  nerve-signs  ;  a  much  smaller  number  were  presented 
by  the  teachers  as  dull  who,  to  my  observation,  did  not 
present  any  outward  signs  of  defect. 

Dull  and  backward  pupils  are  to  be  found  in  every 
school  or  collection  of  children.  :^A  child  slow  or  back- 
ward for  his  age  in  knowledge  and  in  trained  mental 
ability  is  not  necessarily  wanting  in  brain-power  or  a 
defective  child.  J 

A  boy  may  present  a  good  type  in  each  class  of  points 
observed,  except  his  mental  ability :  while  he  can  read 
and  write  fairly  well  and  do  simple  sums,  he  may  be 
unable  to  make  any  calculation  in  his  head  or  to  answer 
any  questions,  requiring  memory  and  connected  thought. 
Still  he  may  be  strong,  healthy,  quick  to  see  and  act 
and  know  what  to  do  at  the  right  time,  and  display  good 
traits  of  character. 

It  may  prove  interesting  to  the  reader  and  valuable 
for  statistical  purposes  to  quote  the  percentage  of  dull 
boys  and  girls  amongst  100  children,  according  to  the 
average  obtained.^ 

Taking  100  dull  boys  and  100  dull  girls,  we  find:  — 

^  Op.  cit.,  p.  154.  -  See  Tabic  \'HI.,  section  on  dull  children. 


164  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Among  children  seven  years  and  under  :  45  boys, 
55  girls  have  developmental  defects;  49  boys,  44  girls 
have  nerve-signs ;  23  boys  and  30  girls  are  delicate. 
Note  the  large  proportion  of  young  dull  girls  that  are 
also  delicate. 

Among  children  eight  or  ten  years  old :  43  boys, 
42  girls  have  developmental  defects ;  63  boys,  56 
girls  show  nerve-signs ;  14  boys  and  16  girls  are 
delicate. 

Among  children  eleven  years  and  over  :  38  boys, 
35  girls  have  developmental  defects;  $9  boys,  56  girls 
present  nerve-signs  ;  and  7  boys  and  10  girls  are  delicate. 

These  facts  concerning  the  common  association  of 
defects  afford  explanation  why  children  are  seen  so 
differently  from  different  points  of  view,  by  the  earnest 
teacher  and  the  equally  well-meaning  parent.  The 
teacher  finds  the  child  dull  and  backward ;  the  mother 
sees  the  nerve-signs  and  indications  of  delicacy.  A 
scientific  description  of  the  facts  seen  indicates  both 
points  of  view. 

A  DULL   AND    BACKWARD   BOY 

Nutnber  26.  Name.     Edward  Baker. 

Age  last  birthday.    1 1  years.       Place  in  school    Standard  IL 

A.   Body :  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.     Large,  circumference  22.0  inches,  frontal  bosses. 
Face.     Features  coarse,  none  deformed. 


TYPES   OF  CHILDHOOD  165 

Ears.    Both  outstanding  ;  large,  no  pleat  to  ear.    They 

are  red. 
Nose. 
Palate.     Narrow,  the  upper  lines  of  teeth  meet  at  a 

straight  angle  in  front. 
Growth.     Well  grown.     Height  54  inches. 

B.   Nerve-signs :    Postures,    movements,    action.      Ex- 
pression. 

General  balance  of  body.  Slouches,  no  exact  symmetry 
of  balance. 

Expression.     Bright,  not  very  intelligent  looking. 

O.  Oculi.     Good  tone. 

Eye-movements.  Can  fix  eyes  well ;  looks  about  by 
moving  head,  not  eyes. 

Head-balance. 

Hands.  Left  held  lower  than  right;  balance  in  fee- 
ble posture.  Response  in  action  rather  slow  and 
uncertain. 

C.    Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.     Good  colour  in  face 
and  lips.     Robust.     A  strong  boy.     Weight  76  lb. 

School  Report.  Does  work  in  school,  but  is  slow  and 
inaccurate,  and  could  not  pass  examination.  Dull, 
but  not  defective. 

Report  on  Child.  Appears  capable  of  work.  Needs 
drill  to  quicken  him  and  improve  gait.  A  few 
minutes  employed  daily  in  class-exercises  in  imita- 
tion of  movements  and  eye-movements  would  im- 
prove his  brain-power.  Possibly  would  do  better 
with  boys  more  of  his  own  age. 


l66  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

A   NORMAL   BOY,    BUT    DULL 

Number  27.  Natne.     Tom  Brown. 

Age  last  birthday.   1 2  years.        F/ace  in  school.  Staridard  IV. 

A.  Body:  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.     Well  shapen,  circumference  21.5  inches. 
Face.     Features  good  and  well  proportioned. 
Ears.     Normal. 
Nose.     Normal. 
Falate.     Normal. 

Growth.     Well  grown,  rather  tall  and  well  proportioned 
in  limbs.     Height  56  inches. 

B.  Nerve-signs :    Postures,    movements,    action.      Ex- 

pression. 

General  bahince  of  body.     Stands  erect ;  moves  well. 

Expression.     Bright  looks,  active  and  playful. 

O.  Oculi.     Good  tone  in  all  muscles  of  face. 

Eye- movements.     Looks  steadily  ;  eyes  follow  a  moving 

object  well. 
Head-balance.     Erect. 
Hands.     Balance  straight  without  movement  of  back, 

when  they  are  held  out ;  action  prompt ;  speaks  well, 

with  clear  voice. 

C.  Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.  Good  colour,  strong 
and  robust.  Says  he  cannot  see  blackboard  unless 
he  is  close  to  it.     Weight,  84  lb. 

School  Report.  A  general  favourite,  social,  a  good  crick- 
eter, but  backward  in  school  for  his  age,  slow  at 
learning,  and  poor  at  mental  arithmetic.  Has  a  bad 
memory,  and  is  wanting  in  attention  and  persever- 
ance.    Not  a  bad  boy. 


TYPES   OF  CHILDHOOD  1 67 

Report  on  Child.  A  strong,  healthy,  well-made  boy.  No 
signs  of  defect ;  he  probably  could  do  better  at  les- 
sons if  he  tried,  but  he  seems  more  fond  of  play  than 
work  ;  if  urged,  he  might  do  more.  If  we  trust 
what  he  says  himself,  he  requires  concave  glasses  (for 
myopia)  ;  he  should  be  examined  carefully  as  to  sight. 

Case  28.    A  boy  small  in  growth,  good  at  games,  dull 
in  lessons. 

A  very  short  boy,  age  fifteen  years.  Weight  5  st. 
13  lb.  (83  lb.);  fairly  muscular.  Educated  at  a  large 
boarding  school  during  the  last  year,  where  he  is  in 
the  choir ;  he  plays  the  violin  and  piano.  He  is 
liked  by  the  masters  and  his  school-fellows  ;  he  plays 
better  at  foot-ball  than  at  cricket,  and  likes  the  gymna- 
sium. His  character  is  good,  with  a  kindly  disposition, 
both  at  home  and  in  school.  In  the  schoolroom  he 
is  very  backward  and  cannot  rise  above  the  lowest  form, 
though  his  education  has  not  been  neglected.  He 
stands  well,  moves  his  eyes  well,  his  action  and  imita- 
tion in  movements  are  very  good.  The  facial  expres- 
sion is  a  little  blank,  the  muscles  in  the  forehead 
over-act,  and  he  is  rather  full  under  the  eyes.  His 
writing  was  fair,  but  slow.  He  could  not  distinguish 
weights  accurately.  Speech  was  monotonous  and  his 
replies  to  questions  long  in  coming  out. 

He  appeared  to  be  gaining  but  little  intellectual 
culture,  though  growing  in  character.  It  was  arranged 
in  school  that  he  should  have  more  food,  go   to    bed 


l68  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

earlier,  give  up  Latin,  and  take  more  time  in  the  work- 
shop. 

He  was  a  good  lad,  capable  of  an  active  life,  but  not 
fitted  for  intellectual  pursuits. 

Case  29.    A  boy  overworked,  not  deficient. 

Boy  aged  fifteen  years.  Home  in  a  British  colony. 
He  was  solitary  in  habits,  not  caring  to  join  in  games 
or  inclined  to  vigorous  exercises  of  any  kind.  He  had 
been  taught  Latin,  French,  history,  arithmetic  up  to 
proportion,  and  some  algebra,  but  he  could  give  no 
clear  account  of  what  he  had  done  in  any  one  subject. 
He  knew  colours  and  could  calculate  a  simple  money 
sum.  He  was  rather  heavy,  flabby,  slow  and  inert  in 
all  modes  of  response  ;  slow  in  dressing  and  in  every- 
thing he  did. 

His  head  and  features  were  well  made,  and  speech 
good  but  slow  ;  he  presented  a  good  expression  and 
facial  action,  his  hands  when  held  out  balanced  straight. 

He  suffered  at  times  from  headache. 

In  his  school-life  he  travelled  by  train  20  miles  a 
day  ;  he  disliked  his  school  and  was  not  happy  there. 
Returning  home  in  the  evening,  he  had  tea,  then  pre- 
pared lessons,  often  working  till  11  p.m. 

There  appeared  to  be  no  real  defect  of  brain  in  the 
boy,  but  he  had  been  over-worked  and  mismanaged. 

Under  observation  it  appeared  that  five  hours  a  day 
was  as  much  work  as  he  could  do  at  lessons  without  signs 
of  fatigue.      He  retjuircd  lighter  work,  he  was  not  fit  for 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  1 69 

more  than  five  hours'  work  under  careful  guidance,  and 
needed  encoura<;enient  to  active  exercise. 

With  such  a  boy  of  inert  disposition,  it  is  better  to 
look  out  for  the  signs  of  fatigue,  and  if  they  appear, 
stop  work  or  change  it ;  but  not  to  ask  him  if  he  feels 
tired  or  has  headache. 

Case  30.  A  small  girl,  exhausted  and  placed  too  high 
in  school. 

Girl  aged  ten  years,  said  by  the  teacher  to  be  one 
of  the  dull  ones.  She  did  not  present  any  signs  of 
defect,  but  appeared  exhausted  and  nervous.  She  had 
entered  among  the  infants,  and  been  moved  up  through 
successive  classes  without  due  consideration  of  what 
was  best  for  her  development. 

Case  31.  A  backward  girl,  head  small,  eye-movements 
faulty. 

A  girl  thirteen  years  old  was  said  to  be  a  bad  speller, 
inexact  in  transcription,  not  bad  in  arithmetic,  and  not 
generally  mentally  dull.  Her  head  was  small,  but  not 
ill  shapen  ;  there  was  a  slight  defect  of  the  retina  of 
the  eyes  ;  she  did  not  move  her  eyes  in  reading,  but 
moved  her  head  towards  the  words.  Daily  exercise 
in  moving  eyes  accurately  was  followed  by  improved 
accuracy  and  better  spelling. 

Case  32.  A  boy  bright  at  arithmetic,  dull  at  Euclid, 
did  not  look  at  the  blackboard. 

The  boy  was  said  to  be  industrious  and  not  dull  at 
arithmetic ;  but  he  could  not  follow  a  demonstration  in 


170  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Euclid  on  the  blackboard.  Observing  the  boy,  during 
the  demonstration,  I  noticed  his  eyes  were  fixed  on  the 
teacher,  in  place  of  the  figure  drawn  on  the  board ; 
he  was  frowning  hard  (corrugation  with  frontals  over- 
acting) and  evidently  trying  to  remember  what  was 
said,  but  his  eyes  did  not  follow  the  demonstration  of 
lines  and  angles. 

Children  Mentally  Exceptional.  —  These  children, 
while  not  necessarily  dull  and  without  brain-power, 
appear  deficient  in  certain  mental  characteristics  and 
in  moral  sense,  such  as  habitual  liars,  thieves,  and  in- 
cendiaries ;  others  liable  to  attacks  of  total  mental  con- 
fusion, a  period  of  mental  inaptitude  or  violent  passion. 
Such  cases  are  often  described  as  moral  imbeciles. 

Some  of  these  children  are  the  offspring  of  insane  par- 
ents or  criminals.  It  is  quite  possible  that  some  of  these 
children  were  really  epileptic  or  subject  to  petit  mal  {2i 
temporary  loss  or  disturbance  of  consciousness). 

There  is  a  distinction  to  be  drawn  between  children 
intellectually  defective  and  those  "  mentally  excep- 
tional." There  are  children  who  from  moral  rather 
than  intellectual  defects  are  unfitted  for  general  train- 
ing;. Children  dull  from  organic  conditions  are  often 
solitary  and  unsocial,  with  defective  expression,  and  it 
may  be  some  mal-development ;  they  may  have  some 
power  of  application  and  apparent  attention,  but  gain 
little  in  education  and  are  apt  to  be  left  out  of  all  friend- 
ship by  the  rest  of  the  normal  children. 


TYPES   OF   CIIILUHOOD  171 

The  children  "mentally  exceptional"  form  a  more 
serious  group  unfitted  for  general  education.  These 
ciiiklren  show  a  distinct  want  of  moral  power  ;  they  are 
not  solitary  and  are  often  bright  and  restless.  I  do  not 
know  of  any  special  signs  or  expression  by  which  one 
can  detect  these  cases. 

Moral  imbeciles  who  still  are  clever  not  uncommonly 
appear  in  the  police  courts. 

Case  33.    A  clever  boy  ;  a  thief  and  an  incendiary. 

A  boy  thirteen  years  of  age,  mother  died  leaving  five 
children,  the  father  was  insane  ;  a  brother  twelve  years 
old  had  tried  to  set  fire  to  the  house.  It  was  given  in 
evidence  at  the  police  court  that  the  boy  would  often  stop 
out  at  night  and  had  stolen  watches,  rings,  and  a  brooch. 
This  sort  of  thing  had  been  going  on  for  the  past  six 
years  ;  if  taken  to  a  friend's  house,  he  would  be  sure  to 
steal  something.  There  was  not  a  lock,  door,  box,  or 
window,  he  could  not  open.  He  was  taken  to  stay  at  a 
farmhouse  ;  one  day,  when  every  one  was  out,  he  took  in 
a  lot  of  "ragamuffins  "  and  had  an  illumination  in  an  up- 
stairs room,  and  part  of  the  room,  it  was  found,  had  actu- 
ally been  alight.  Since  his  arrest  he  had  made  an  attempt 
to  set  fire  to  his  own  bedroom.  His  school-mistress  said 
he  was  a  very  intelligent  boy  and  in  the  fifth  standard. 

Case  34.  A  clever  girl,  but  character  bad,  criminal 
inheritance. 

A  girl  of  twelve  years,  in  Standard  VI.  ;  well  made, 
healthy,  quick,  active,  and  clever  in  school  ;  no  signs  of 


172  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

defect  observed,  but  a  bad  expression.  Her  father  killed 
her  mother,  who  was  a  drunkard.  She  was  reported  as 
clever  at  work,  but  an  habitual  liar  and  thief  who  had 
tried  to  set  fire  to  the  house. 

Case  35.  A  boy  eight  years  of  age,  bright  and  intelli- 
gent in  appearance,  had  lost  both  his  parents  (the 
mother  died  insane).  He  lived  with  his  grandparents. 
He  was  liable  to  such  strong  and  sudden  outbursts  of 
passion  as  to  be  uncontrollable  both  at  home  and  in 
day-school,  and  at  length  was  withdrawn  from  school  as 
unmanageable.  When  removed  to  the  country,  his 
health  improved,  and  he  became  good  and  quiet,  but 
when  brought  back  to  London,  his  bursts  of  passion 
returned.  He  had  occasionally  suffered  from  slight 
epileptic  fits,  and  his  younger  sister  also  ;  that  was,  in 
all  probability,  the  outcome  of  his  inheritance.  When 
last  heard  of,  the  boy  was  neither  being  educated  nor 
under  proper  control,  and  although  at  present  harmless, 
and  capable  of  being  taught  self-restraint,  he  is  likely 
on  arriving  at  manhood  to  be  a  social  failure,  if  not 
absolutely  dangerous  to  society. 

Children  Feebly  Gifted  Mentally.  —  These  children 
are  distinctly  deficient  in  mental  power,  but  should 
not  be  certified  as  imbeciles   or   "mentally  defective." 

No  child  is  included  in  this  group,  unless  it  is  be- 
lieved upon  both  evidence  observed  and  the  teacher's 
report  to  be  incapable  of  school  work  in  the  ordinary 
classes.     It   is    not    possible    to    define  with    exactness 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  1 73 

what  physical  conditions  seen,  as  apart  from  mental 
tests,  indicate  the  child  as  unfitted  in  mental  capacity 
for  the  usual  methods  of  education.  There  appears, 
however,  to  be  a  large  number  of  "  children  feebly 
gifted  mentally "  with  defect  of  mental  power  short 
of  imbecility,  but  still  with  some  deficiency. 

These  children  may  be  described  and  reported  on 
as  to  :  — 

(i)  Mental  tests;  ability  to  answer  questions,  to 
make  simple  calculations,  to  read  :  as  to  speech  and 
extent  of  vocabulary,  knowledge  of  colours,  coins,  etc. 

(2)  Signs  of  brain-action :  response  in  movement 
and  in  imitation,  fixation  of  eyes,  want  of  changeful 
expression,  frowning,  weakness,  and  asymmetry  in 
balance  and  other  abnormal  nerve-signs. 

(3)  As  to  development  of  the  head  and  body  or 
any  developmental  defects. 

(4)  As  to  physical  health  and  nutrition. 
Sight  and  hearing  should  be  carefully  tested. 

No  sharp  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn  be- 
tween the  children  feebly  gifted  and  imbeciles,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  as  differentiating  them  from  chil- 
dren simply  dull  and  backward,  on  the  other  hand. 
For  practical  purposes  I  think  there  should  be  two 
reports  on  such  a  child :  one  as  to  mental  status,  char- 
acter, and  habits,  prepared  by  a  teacher,  with  evidence 
from  the  parents;  the  other  by  an  expert,  giving  a 
physical  description  of  the  child,  as  he  sees  him. 


174  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

A  fp:ebly  gifted  child 

Number  36.  Name.     Adelaide  Bennett. 

Age  last  birthday.    1 3  years.  Place  in  school.    Class  of 

special  instruction, 

A.    Body:  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.  Small,  circumference  19  inches,  transverse  from 
ear  to  ear  iif  inches,  antero-posterior  12  inches. 
Good  shape,  no  bosses  or  ridges. 

Face.     Features,  except  nose,  fairly  made. 

Ears.     Normal. 

Nose.  Bridge  of  nose  wide  and  rather  flat,  or  spread 
out.  ^ 

Palate.     Narrow. 

Growth.     Fairly  tall.     Height  58.5  inches. 

B.   Nerve-signs :    Postures,    movements,   action.      Ex- 
pression. 

General  balance  of  body.    Slouching.    Movements  slow  ; 

she  tends  to  retain  any  attitude  assumed.    Imitation 

of  movements  fairly  accurate. 
Expression.     Fairly  intelligent. 

O.  Oculi.     Good  tone  under  eyes  and  in  face  generally. 
Eye-movements.    Follows  well  an  object  moved,  and  she 

fixes  eyes  on  an  object. 
Head- balance.     Not  quite  erect. 
Hands.     Balance  in  nervous  posture. 
She  squints.     The  mouth  is  always  open.     Speaks  fairly 

well,  but  utterance   is   thick ;    there   appears  to  be 

obstruction  in  the  nose. 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  175 

C.    Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.     A  little  pale,  but  not 
thin.     Weight  90  lb.     Tonsils  are  not  large. 

School  Report.  Attends  regularly  a  class  of  special  in- 
struction for  backward  children.  A  good  child,  truth- 
ful, honest;  will  buy  and  get  change  correctly.  Counts 
well,  knows  value  of  money,  reads  simple  words.  Can 
do  needlework  and  domestic  work  if  urged  to. 

Report  on  Child.  Is  small  headed  and  feebly  gifted 
mentally,  but  appears  educable ;  she  is  not  trouble- 
some, but  wanting  in  spontaneous  self-helpfulness 
and  probably  in  self-protection.  She  has  benefited, 
and  will  probably  continue  to  benefit,  by  daily  train- 
ing ;  she  will  need  some  friendly  supervision  and 
industrial  training  after  leaving  school.  Medical  at- 
tendance as  to  the  throat  is  necessary }  she  probably 
requires  spectacles. 

Case  37.  A  girl  mentally  feeble,  without  speech, 
but  with  some  social  and  moral  sense. 

Girl  aged  seven  years.  Small  in  stature  and  thin ; 
weight  30  pounds ;  head  rather  small,  circumference 
19  inches,  transverse  12  inches,  antero-posterior  12 
inches,  fair  form.     Features  and  palate  well  made. 

She  does  not  run  alone,  but  walks  with  very  little 
assistance.  There  is  a  slight  squint.  There  is  very 
little  speech,  the  child  turns  towards  a  sound ;  it  is 
uncertain  how  much  she  hears,  but  she  fixes  her 
eyes  on  the  face  of  a  speaker,  as  deaf  children  do. 
I   learned   that    she  was    not    without    the   t acuities    of 


176  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

"moral  sense  and  social  sense."  One  morning  she 
had  pushed  over  a  table  with  a  flower  on  it,  appar- 
ently on  purpose ;  in  the  afternoon,  when  I  saw  her, 
she  came  to  me,  and  without  words  pointed  to  the 
table,  as  if  to  tell  that  she  had  done  wrong.  She 
liked  to  be  clean  and  tidy,  and  would  help  a  little 
in  toilet,  and  was  social  and  kind  with  other  children, 
patronizing  them.  She  played  much  with  a  toy  rab- 
bit, and  having  seen  nurse  show  it  to  a  cat,  did  the 
same  thing  herself  two  days  later.  When  custard 
and  rice  pudding  were  within  sight,  she  made  choice 
of  the  custard  and  ate  it. 

Mistakes  are  sometimes  made ;  and  children  are 
thought  to  be  deficient  in  mental  power,  in  whom 
mental  dulness  is  due  to  defective  sight  and  deafness. 

Case  38.     A  boy  deaf,  without  speech,  but  educable. 

A  boy,  nearly  seven  years  old,  was  said  to  be  un- 
educable ;  he  had  but  little  speech,  otherwise  there 
were  no  abnormal  nerve-signs ;  he  did  not  respond  to 
a  verbal  direction,  but  was  evidently  deaf  to  a  high 
degree.  His  imitation  of  movements  by  sight  was 
good,  and  he  made  all  his  wants  known ;  he  fixed 
his  eyes  well  in  looking  at  any  one  or  at  an  object, 
and  when  he  handled  objects,  showed  a  varying  ex- 
pression at  sight  of  them  and  made  choice  of  what 
he  liked  best.  The  head  and  body  were  well  made. 
His  mouth  was  kept  open  ;  there  was  a  large  growth 
at  the  back  of  his  throat,  requiring  surgical  treatment; 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  1/7 

this  was  attended  to,  and  he  improved  much.  The 
boy  required  to  be  taught  to  speak. 

Case  39.  A  boy  with  increasing  deafness,  short 
sight  and  accompanying  mental  dulness. 

A  boy  thirteen  years  of  age,  had  been  two  years  at 
a  private  school  preparing  for  higher  education.  He 
had  learnt  some  Latin  and  French,  but  was  said  to 
be  so  dull  and  backward  that  he  had  to  leave  the 
school.  His  action  in  movement  was  good :  he  could 
work  out  a  money  sum  on  paper,  and  the  money 
values  corresponding  with  coins ;  he  wrote  a  good 
letter  and  expressed  himself  well  in  words.  His  body 
and  head  were  well  developed,  as  also  his  features. 
He  was  very  deaf  and  could  only  hear  my  watch 
at  six  inches ;  there  was  obstruction  in  the  throat 
which  had  been  neglected,  and  his  deafness  had  in- 
creased in  consequence.  He  was  also  short-sighted. 
The  boy  did  not  appear  deficient  in  mental  power, 
but  required  surgical  treatment  and  a  pair  of 
spectacles. 

Children  presenting  Defects  in  Development.  —  This 
group  includes  all  children  with  one  or  more  of  the 
defects  in  development  of  the  body  that  have  been 
described. 

Such  cases  are  more  frequent  among  boys  than 
girls ;  the  conditions  of  body  observed  may  have  no 
further  significance ;  but,  in  many  cases,  other  defec- 
tive conditions  are  associated.     Taking    100  boys  and 

N 


178  THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 

100  girls  with  such  defects  as  are  described,  we  find 
according  to  the  average  obtained :  — 

Among  children  seven  years  and  under :  23  boys, 
35  girls  also  pale,  thin,  delicate;  36  boys  and  40 
girls  being  dull  pupils. 

Among  children  eight  to  ten  years  old:  16  boys, 
22  girls  are  delicate;  while  41  boys  and  46  girls 
were  reported  as  dull  in  school. 

Among  children  eleven  years  old  and  over :  7  boys 
and  15  girls  were  delicate,  whilst  37  boys  and  51 
girls  were  reported  as  dull. 

Conditions  of  health  may  improve,  as  these  chil- 
dren grow  older ;  but  an  increasing  proportion  of 
them  are  found  by  the  teacher  to  be  dull  pupils. 
To  prevent  such  mental  dulness  occurring,  these  chil- 
dren should  be  recognised  early  in  life,  that  they 
may  be  trained  appropriately  from  the  first. 

Children  presenting  Abnormal  Nerve-signs.  —  This 
group  includes  all  children  with  one  or  more  of 
the  abnormal  nerve-signs   described. 

Taking  100  boys  and  100  girls  with  such  signs  as 
described,  we  find  :  — 

Among  children  seven  years  and  under:  19  boys, 
27  girls  also  delicate ;  43  boys,  47  girls  being  re- 
ported as  dull. 

In  children  eight  to  ten  years  old:  11  boys,  15 
girls  also  delicate;  42  boys,  41  girls  being  dull 
pupils. 


TYPES   OF  C:niI.DHOOD  1 79 

In  children  eleven  years  and  over :  3  boys,  5  girls 
also  delicate ;  25  boys,  26  girls  being  dull  pupils. 

If,  in  methods  of  training  children,  more  care  were 
taken  to  prevent  and  remove  "  abnormal  nerve-signs," 
the  brain-condition  of  the  children  would  probably  be 
more  receptive  to  mental  training.  The  attention  of 
school-teachers  and  educationalists  might  be  directed 
to  this  object  with  advantage. 

Delicate  Children  with  Low  Nutrition  ;  Pale  or  Thin.  — 
Such  cases  are  more  frequent  among  girls  than  boys, 
when  we  take  the  whole  number  of  children  in  a  school ; 
when,  however,  we  take  only  well-made  boys  and  girls, 
excluding  those  with  developmental  defects,  the  pro- 
portion of  delicate  boys  and  girls  is  about  equal.  This 
fact  may  be  important  in  considering  questions  of  school 
method  and  arrangements. 

Taking  100  boys  and  100  girls,  all  delicate  children, 
in  school,  we  find  :  — 

Among  children  seven  years  and  under:  52  boys, 
66  girls  also  presented  some  signs  of  defect  in  develop- 
ment of  the  body;  41  boys,  36  girls  showed  "nerve- 
signs,"  whilst  43  boys  and  43  girls  were  dull. 

In  children  eight  to  ten  years  old  :  5 1  boys  and  50 
girls  presented  defects  of  development;  51  boys  and  51 
girls  showed  nerve-signs ;  49  boys  and  40  girls  were 
dull. 

In  children  eleven  years  and  over:  39  boys  and  35 
girls  had  development   defects;   56  boys  and  50  girls 


l8o  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

showed  "nerve-signs";  while  'i^'j  of  the  boys  and  35 
girls  were  dull. 

Delicate  children  are  often  dull  and  need  training  and 
teaching,  as  well  as  physical  care  in  other  directions. 

No  inquiries  were  made  as  to  the  feeding  of  the  chil- 
dren, but  probably  those  in  resident  schools,  and  the 
10,000  in  upper  class  schools,  were  provided  with  suffi- 
cient food.  In  all  groups  of  schools  it  appears  to  be 
the  "development  cases  "  that  suffer  the  most  from  low 
nutrition.  Could  we  remove  the  frequency  of  these 
defects,  we  should  probably  have  a  smaller  proportion 
of  weak,  thin,  and  delicate  children. 

The  fact  that  delicacy  and  low  nutrition  are  much 
associated  with,  and  apparently  caused  by,  mal-develop- 
ment,  seems  to  indicate  a  constitutional  or  congenital 
flaw  in  the  individual,  often  also  associated  with  a  ten- 
dency to  brain-disorderliness  and  inertness.  Such  cases 
of  low  nutrition  should  not  be  neglected  either  in  physi- 
cal health  or  in  education  ;  we  may  wait  too  long  for 
the  child  to  grow  strong ;  it  is  otherwise  with  conditions 
of  ill-health  due  to  temporary  conditions  or  to  disease. 

It  has  been  said  that  girls  are  more  delicate  than 
boys  ;  inquiry  and  accurate  description  show  that  prob- 
ably there  is  not  more  delicacy  among  perfectly  well 
made  girls  than  boys ;  when,  however,  girls  are  con- 
stitutionally weak,  they  tend  more  to  further  conditions 
of  disturbance  and  disorder  in  greater  proportion  than 
the  boys. 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  l8l 

A  DELICATE  GIRL,  HEAD  SMALL,  FIDGETY. 
MENTALLY  BRIGHT,  BUT  SUFFERS  FROiM 
HEADACHES;   SHE   NEEDS  SPECTACLES. 

Number  40.  Name.     Lucy  Jankinson. 

Age  his/  birthday.    1 2  years.      Place  in  school.   Standard  VI. 

A.  Body:  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.     Small,  but  well  shapen,  without  ridges  or  bosses. 

Circumference  19.5  inches. 
Face.     Features  well  formed  and  in  proportion  to  the 

head,  which  is  small. 
Ears.     Good. 
Nose.     Good. 
Palate.     Well  shapen. 
Growth.     Looks  slight  in  build,  but  tall  for  her  make. 

Height  57  inches. 

B.  Nerve-signs :    Postures,    movements,   action.      Ex- 

pression. 
General  balance  of  body.     Rather  over-mobile,  a  little 

fidgety. 
Expression.     Bright,  looks  intelligent. 
O.  Oculi.    Rather  wanting  in  good  tone,  but  not  exactly 

full  under  eyes. 
Eye-movements.     Fixation  good ;    moves  eyes  well  in 

looking. 
Head-balance. 
Hands.     Held  out  well  and  promptly  ;   right   straight, 

left  with  three  fingers  bent  back  at  knuckles,  as  in 

"  nervous  posture."     On  holding  out  hands,  lordosis, 

or  throwing  back  the  shoulders. 
When  looking  at  a  coin,  held  18  inches  from  flice,  eyes 

slightly  converge. 


1 82  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

C.    Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.     Pale  and  rather  thin. 
Weight  70  11). 
Looks  a  healthy  child,  though  rather  thin  and  delicate. 

School  Report.  A  bright  child,  works  well  in  school ; 
attendance  regular,  except  when  sick  headaches  pre- 
vent. Complains  that  her  eyes  ache  when  sewing, 
but  can  see  blackboard  and  reads  test-type.  Is  very 
fond  of  reading. 

Report  on  Child.  A  small-headed  girl,  bright  mentally, 
but  delicate,  and  is  likely  to  remain  so.  Eyes  should 
be  examined  carefully  ;  she  probably  needs  convex 
glasses  (for  Hypermetropia),  the  use  of  which  may 
help  to  keep  off  headaches.  Requires  long  hours  of 
rest  at  night. 

Dull  and  Delicate  Children  with  Some  Defect  in  Develop- 
ment and  Abnormal  Nerve-signs.  —  There  is  a  group  of 
dull  and  delicate  children  with  abnormal  nerve-signs, 
whose  condition  appears  to  demand  that  they  should 
receive  special  attention ;  the  physical  report  and  indi- 
cations of  mental  dulness  agree  in  indicating  them  as 
unable  to  profit  by  the  ordinary  modes  of  training  suited 
to  the  average  and  stronger  children  ;  they  at  the  same 
time  require  more  than  ordinary  care  to  prevent  their 
failure  in  adult  life. 


TYPES   Ol'   CIlII.hlKKJD  183 

a  delicate  boy,  dull  at  work,  with 
some  deeect  in  deviclopment  and 
nervp:-signs.  needs  special  care 
and  training. 

Number  \\.  Name.     Henry  Harris. 

Age  last  birthday.     9  years.        Place  in  school.     Standard  I. 

A.  Body:  Development,  features,  etc. 

Head.     Circumference    21    inches.      Forehead    narrow 

and  shallow. 
Face.     Features  of  face  fairly  proportioned. 
Ears.     Normal. 
Nose.     Normal. 
Palate.     Rather  narrow. 
Growth.     Sufficient  for  age.     Height  50  inches. 

B.  Nerve-signs  :    Postures,    movements,    action.       Ex- 

pression. 

General  balance  of  body.  Rather  listless,  and  asymmet- 
rical in  balance. 

Expression.     Fair. 

O.  Oculi.     Good  tone  under  eyes. 

Eye-movements.  Wander  much,  but  can  fix.  Looks  at 
words  by  moving  head. 

Head-balance.     Straight.  ' 

Hands.     Balance  in  "nervous  posture,"  fingers  twitch. 

When  hands  are  held  out,  shoulders  are  thrown  back 
and  spine  arched  (lordosis).  Slow  and  inexact  in 
imitating  movements. 


1 84  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

C    Physical  Health  and  Nutrition.     Pale  in  face  and  lips  ; 
limbs  thin.     Does  not  look  unhealthy.    Weight  50  lb. 

School  Report.  Has  been  two  years  in  Standard  I.,  reads 
as  a  child  of  seven  years.  Does  addition  sums;  can- 
not learn  multiplication.  Transcription  fairly  written, 
but  inaccurate.  Can  learn  poetry.  Very  dull,  can- 
not get  on. 

Report  on  Child.     Dull  mentally,  poorly  developed  in 

body,  and  delicate  with  listless  irregular  brain-action 
in  movement.  Would  do  much  better  in  small  class 
of  special  instruction,  and  needs  careful  physical  train- 
ing with  some  individual  instruction.  It  seems  likely 
that  he  will  improve. 

Epileptics,  and  Children  with  History  of  Fits  during 
School-life.  —  In  my  inquiry  these  cases  were  asked  for 
in  every  school.  Any  case  with  a  history  or  indications 
of  fits  during  school-life  was  entered  in  this  group  for 
what  it  may  be  worth.  Epileptic  children  are  not  nec- 
essarily dull  pupils,  and  the  fits  may  be  very  transient, 
amounting  only  to  a  temporary  loss  or  disturbance  of 
consciousness  {petit  mal\ 

Many  of  these  children  are  capable  of  school  training 
and  need  occupation. 

Epileptic  children  who  retain  intelligence  are  fre- 
quently left  untaught,  though  their  culture  is  of  more 
than  ordinary  importance  to  prevent  mental  and  moral 
degradation. 


TYPES   OF   CHILDHOOD  1 85 

Case  42.  Girl,  age  13,  Standard  VII.  Head  and  feat- 
ures normal,  expression  wanting ;  eyes  wander  and  do 
not  fix  well ;  hand-balance  feeble.  Movements  uncer- 
tain ;  she  looks  at  others,  before  moving  as  told.  Nerve- 
system  is  probably  not  sound  ;  very  dull  in  school,  but 
improving.     Has  fits  at  home,  none  in  school. 

Case  43.  Boy,  age  1 1,  Standard  IV.  General  appear- 
ance is  healthy.  Epicanthis  present.  Expression  want- 
ing, smiles  much,  looks  deficient  in  intellect.  Speech 
indistinct  and  defective ;  did  not  talk  till  five  years  of 
age.  Reported  by  his  teacher  as  "very  good  and  well 
conducted ;  very  nervous ;  ability  average  in  all  sub- 
jects except  reading,  which  is  owing  to  defect  in  speech. 
Has  fits  in  school." 

Case  44.  Boy,  age  13,  Standard  VI.  Head  and  feat- 
ures normal.  Expression  good ;  hand-balance  weak ; 
lordosis.  A  clever  boy,  conduct  very  good.  Has  epi- 
leptic fits  both  at  home  and  in  school. 

Case  45.  Boy,  age  10,  Standard  IV.  No  faulty  points 
observed  in  looking  at  the  boy.  He  is  intelligent,  but 
has  fits  at  home  and  in  school,  lasting  some  seconds,  in 
which  he  falls  down  and  kicks,  has  had  as  many  as 
160  fits  in  a  day. 

Case  46.  Girl,  age  8,  Infant  School.  Head  very  small, 
18.5  inches  circumference,  not  badly  shapen.  Ears 
badly  made  in  rim.  Expression  wanting ;  no  response 
in  action,  will  not  speak.  Thin  and  delicate.  "  Does 
not  speak,  cannot  read  or  write,  but  appears  to  under- 


1 86  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Stand  some  things  said."  Is  mentally  defective  and 
epileptic. 

Children  Crippled,  Maimed,  Paralysed,  or  Deformed.  — 
Those  children  vary  greatly  in  brain-power,  some  are 
mentally  bright,  others  dull.  The  conditions  causing 
crippling  are  numerous ;  some  are  from  disease  of  bones, 
others  from  paralysis.  Each  case  needs  to  be  con- 
sidered individually  in  the  school. 

Children  who  appear  to  require  Special  Care  and  Train- 
ing.—  There  is  a  small  percentage  of  children,  who  in 
the  aggregate  form  a  considerable  number  unfitted,  on 
physical  or  mental  grounds,  for  the  general  education 
given  in  public  schools. 

A  teacher  of  some  years'  experience  may  readily 
detect  such  children,  but  hitherto  no  fixed  points  (stig- 
mata) have  been  recognised,  by  which  it  may  at  once 
be  decided  that  such  and  such  a  child  is  unfit  for  gen- 
eral education. 

Some  difficulty  has  been  found  in  forming  any  defi- 
nition of  this  class  of  children.  As  arranged,  it  in- 
cludes :  — 

"Children  feebly  gifted  mentally." 

"Children  mentally  exceptional." 

"  Epileptics." 

"  Children  crippled,  paralysed,  maimed,  or  deformed, 
and  the  group  of  dull  and  delicate  children  who  also 
present  defect  in  development  with  abnormal  nerve- 
signs." 


TYPES   OF  CHILDHOOD  1 87 

I  think  that  each  of  these  children  should  be  known 
to  the  managers,  and  that  each  case  should  be  con- 
sidered separately.  It  is  not  intended  to  imply  that 
these  children  cannot  be  provided  for  in  day  schools, 
but  they  need  to  be  provided  for. 


CHAPTER  X 

Adolescence 

We  speak  of  children  growing  up  and  as  passing 
on  to  adolescence,  the  period  between  childhood  and 
manhood  or  womanhood.  I  shall  here  refer  to  some 
of  the  points  you  may  observe  in  the  older  children, 
comparing  their  physical  and  mental  characteristics 
with  those  of  earlier  childhood. 

Spontaneous  movement  has  been  described  as  the 
great  characteristic  of  infancy  and  early  childhood;  this 
markedly  diminishes  as  years  advance  and  is  replaced 
by  movements  adapted  both  in  speech  and  action  by 
circumstances,  expressing  intellectuality  and  reasoning  ; 
the  child  becomes  less  childish  ;  action  should  now  be 
more  fully  under  control  of  the  senses,  and  of  the  im- 
pressions received,  and  should  show  the  results  of 
previous  training.  The  nerve-system  is  so  far  built 
up  (coordinated)  by  training  and  social  experience  that 
we  expect  lines  of  action  and  methods  of  thought 
and  of  speech,  under  given  circumstances,  to  be  much 
like  that  in  other  children  of  the  same  age  and  social 
position. 

Social  sense  should  now  develop  more  strongly,  show- 


ADOLESCENCE  1 89 

ing  character,  avoidance  of  childish  faults,  more  truth 
and  accuracy  in  conduct  and  in  word,  with  some 
thoughtfulness  for  others  and  appreciation  of  what  has 
been  done  for  the  child  in  the  past  years  and  an  awaken- 
ing sense  of  responsibilities.  At  this  age  boys  and  girls 
differ  more  in  some  respects  than  in  early  years  ;  they 
tend  less  to  play  together  and  begin  to  approach  one 
another  in  social  meeting  differently,  so  that  to  allow 
sufficient  freedom  they  separate  more,  which  is  not 
undesirable,  if  accompanied  by  mutual  respect. 

In  boys  and  girls  at  this  age  the  brain  and  nerve- 
system  come  more  under  the  control  of  the  feelings  : 
consequently  wise  control  and  guidance  are  wanted, 
while  wider  aspects  of  life  and  social  habits  may  be 
appreciated  which  could  not  be  understood  earlier  with- 
out experience.  The  children  are  now  less  childish  and 
begin  to  demand  respect  as  well  as  affection  ;  at  the 
same  time  they  should  learn  to  show  respect  and  esteem 
for  others.  For  some  of  the  older  children  questions 
must  arise  as  to  their  fitness  and  preparation  for  higher 
education  after  school,  or  for  a  business  or  profession 
and  the  duties  of  the  coming  years  of  social  life. 

Professor  Key  made  observation  upon  15,000  boys 
and  3000  girls  at  schools  in  Sweden,  and  found  among 
the  boys  that  there  was  a  rapid  increase  in  height  and 
weight  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  sixteenth  years  — 
among  the  girls  the  period  of  rapid  growth  of  body 
appeared   somewhat    earlier.     Dr.   Bowditch's    observa- 


190  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

tions  on  children  of  American  parentage,  seen  in  Bos- 
ton, show  similar  conditions  of  growth.     See  Table  III. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  out- 
come of  this  growth  period  on  general  strength  and 
form.  Professor  Key  has  shown  that,  contrary  to  the 
opinion  of  many,  it  is  a  period  of  increased  power  to 
resist  disease. 

I  think  it  will  be  found  that  the  effects  of  such  rapid 
growth  in  children  differ  for  boys  and  girls,  and  vary 
with  the  different  types  of  childhood  as  described  (see 
Chapter  IX.),  and  that  among  children  with  develop- 
mental defects  or  abnormal  nerve-signs  of  the  more 
enduring  type  delicacy  and  nerve-disturbance  are  apt 
to  occur  without  due  care  to  avoid  them.  In  this 
direction  the  avoidance  of  exhaustion  and  anaemia  are 
most  important ;  practical  wisdom  consists  in  observ- 
ing the  individual  child  and  being  guided  thereby  in 
management. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  boy  or  girl  at  the  older  ages 
of  school-life,  who  is  free  from  developmental  defects 
of  any  kind  and  shows  no  abnormal  nerve-signs  or 
indications  of  delicacy,  i.e.  the  normal  child,  is  very 
likely  to  fall  into  ill-health  or  a  nervous  condition,  if  a 
wisely  conducted  training  at  school  is  continued. 

Of  the  100,000  children  I  have  examined  in  school, 
80  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  84.  i  per  cent  of  the  girls 
were  normal  and  not  reported  as  dull  mentally. 

It    is,    however,    far    otherwise    with    the    children 


ADOLESCENCE  19I 

who  have  some  defect :  anaemia,  nervous  disturbance, 
and  hysteria  may  become  manifest  as  adolescence 
approaches,  especially  in  girls  ;  when  such  become  es- 
tablished, particularly  if  anaimia  and  nerve-disturbance 
occur  together,  a  long  period  of  ill-health  may  result. 

When  consulted  about  a  child  as  to  the  advisability 
of  continuii.^  school-life,  I  look  for  a  good  develop- 
ment and  growth  with  the  signs  of  healthy  brain- 
action  and  absence  of  defects ;  if  nothing  amiss  is 
seen,  I  should  advise  continuance  of  regular  study. 
If  a  course  of  hard  work  or  severe  study  is  to  be 
undertaken,  it  is  well  to  review  the  child  or  young 
person  periodically,  to  see  that  no  signs  of  fatigue 
or  ill-health  are  manifest. 

The  desideratum  at  adolescence  is  to  preserve  and 
further  cultivate  health  of  body  and  of  brain  without 
in  any  way  neglecting  healthy  mental  power,  which 
should  continue  to  increase  long  after  the  period  of 
adolescence.  As  adolescence  approaches,  observe  the 
weight  more  frequently :  look  for  any  signs  of  fa- 
tigue after  work  and  before  commencing  the  day's 
duties,  but  do  not  question  the  child  as  to  health. 
Continue  physical  training  and  require  greater  accu- 
racy in  movements  as  well  as  in  speech,  than  at 
earlier  ages.  If  paleness  or  the  signs  of  fatigue  or 
listlessness  are  seen,  the  cause  should  be  inquired 
into,  especially  as  to  regularity  in  hours  of  sleep  and 
as  to  feeding. 


192  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

To  understand  some  of  the  changes  occurring  in 
school  children  towards  the  period  of  adolescence, 
we  may  take  those  subnormal  in  some  particular,  and 
contrast  (i)  the  boys  at  eleven  years  and  over,  with 
the  youngest  group ;  (2)  then,  the  girls  similarly ;  and 
lastly,  (3)  we  will  compare  the  girls  with  the  boys 
in  their  advance  during  school  age.  For  the  facts 
here  stated  I  refer  the  reader  to  Table  VIII. 

Boys  at  eleven  years  and  over  in  contrast  with  those 
seven  years  and  younger,  are  arranged  in  classes  as 
before  referred  to ;  we  shall  see  something  of  their 
progress  in  life. 

As  to  the  older  boys  with  some  developmental 
defect  in  body,  more  have  abnormal  nerve-signs  or 
are  slow,  inexact,  or  disorderly  in  movement  than 
when  young ;  about  the  same  proportion  remain 
mentally  dull  or  backward,  but  far  fewer  are  deli- 
cate. These  boys  with  badly  made  heads,  or  defect 
in  physiognomy  or  growth,  become  less  delicate  in 
health  with  the  progress  of  school-life,  but  the 
proportion  of  those  with  disorderly  brains  and  men- 
tal dulness  increases.  It  is  shown  in  Proposition 
VII.  (p.  248)  that  training  directed  to  improve  brain- 
action  in  movement  lessens  mental  dulness ;  it  is 
therefore  clear  that  more  attention  to  this  matter  is 
needed. 

Among  the  older  boys  with  signs  of  "  brain-disorder- 
liness,"    i.e.    abnormal  nerve-signs,    we    find   a   smaller 


ADOLESCENCE  1 93 

proportion  of  dull  pupils  than  in  earlier  years;  school 
training  seems  to  sharpen  them  up. 

Among  older  boys  who  are  pale,  thin,  or  delicate 
the  proportion  of  those  who  are  dull  diminishes  with 
school  work,  but  still  includes  40  per  cent,  and  at  all 
ages  a  larger  proportion  of  the  delicate  boys  are 
found  to  be  dull  mentally  than  among  the  girls. 

Of  the  Dull  boys  in  the  older  group  a  much  larger 
proportion  present  abnormal  nerve-signs  than  among 
the  young ;  this  combined  with  the  fact  that  such 
signs  of  brain-disorderliness  are  always  the  most  fre- 
quent accompaniments  of  mental  dulness,  again  in- 
dicates how  many  dull  boys  might  probably  be 
brightened  by    further  attention    to    physical  training. 

Now  as  to  the  girls  at  eleven  years  and  over,  in  con- 
trast with  those  seven  years  and  younger.  Of  those 
with  some  developmental  defect  of  body  the  propor- 
tion with  abnormal  nerve-signs  has  risen  greatly ; 
though  the  proportion  of  those  who  are  delicate  has 
fallen,  the  number  still  remains  large,  twice  as  great 
a  proportion  as  with  the  boys  —  while  the  proportion 
of  those  who  show  mental  dulness  has  risen  10  per 
cent.  This  class  of  girls  needs  much  care  towards 
and  during  the  period  of  adolescence. 

Among  the  older  girls  Loiv  initrition   is  associated 
with  developmental  defect  in  a  much  smaller  propor- 
tion  of  cases,   than  in    young  girls;    their  delicacy   is 
presumably  more  due   to   conditions  of    environment ; 
o 


194  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

still  more  than  a  third  of  these  delicate  girls  ap- 
proaching adolescence  have  conditions  of  constitution 
tending  to  low  health. 

Among  the  older  girls  who  are  dull  mentally  a 
smaller  proportion  of  cases  is  due  to  developmental 
defect,  and  a  much  smaller  proportion  to  delicacy ; 
while  a  larger  proportion  are  associated  with  abnormal 
nerve-signs. 

We  have  now  to  compare  the  girls  with  the  boys  in 
their  advance  during  school  age. 

Among  cases  with  a  defect  in  development  in  girls  of 
the  older  age,  this  condition  is  more  associated  with 
nerve-signs,  delicacy,  and  dulness  than  in  boys,  and  such 
associated  tendency  appears  to  have  risen  from  the 
earlier  period  more  with  the  girls.  These  appear  to 
represent  many  of  the  girls  who  have  grave  health 
disturbance  as  adolescence  approaches. 

Among  cases  with  abnormal  nerve-signs  in  girls  of 
the  older  group,  this  condition  is  accompanied  in  a 
smaller  proportion  by  developmental  defect  than  with 
boys ;  but  the  difference  is  much  less  marked  as  age 
progresses.  The  proportion  for  children  with  abnormal 
nerve-signs  who  are  mentally  dull,  is  about  equal  for 
boys  and  girls  at  all  ages. 

Among  the  Delicate  children  the  association  with 
developmental  defect  is  lower  in  the  older  group ; 
whereas  in  infancy  this  association  is  more  marked  with 
girls,  in  the  older  group  it  is  more  marked  with  the  boys. 


ADOLESCENCE  1 95 

Both  boys  and  girls  with  developmental  defect  bear 
the  effects  of  their  environment  badly,  but  the  power  of 
resistance  seems  to  improve  with  years,  advancing  more 
with  girls  than  boys.  The  proportion  of  delicate  boys 
and  girls  who  arc  dull  remains  much  the  same  at  all 
ages,  improving  slightly  under  school  training. 

Among  the  Dull  children  the  proportion  with  abnor- 
mal nerve-signs  is  higher  at  the  older  age  both  for  boys 
and  girls,  while  the  proportion  of  those  who  are  delicate 
declines. 

Having  spoken  of  anaemia  and  hysteria  as  conditions 
of  ill-health,  not  unfrequently  developing  at  the  period 
of  adolescence,  a  short  description  indicating  the  signs 
of  their  commencement  must  be  given. 

Anaemia  is  a  defect  in  the  blood,  in  which  it  loses  its 
colouring-matter.  The  red  part  of  the  blood  is  very 
necessary  to  health ;  it  carries  oxygen  from  the  lungs 
to  the  brain  and  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  where  blood 
circulates.  A  person  who  is  anaemic  loses  colour,  the 
face  and  lips  become  pale,  the  colour  under  the  nails  is 
lessened  and  changes  less  when  the  nail  is  pressed,  the 
patient  becomes  breathless  and  pants  in  going  upstairs. 
The  brain  is  much  affected  by  the  want  of  good  blood ; 
there  is  headache,  giddiness,  and  drowsiness,  a  lethargic 
manner  and  inability  for  much  active  work.  Hot  close 
rooms,  want  of  light,  and  ill-ventilation  of  the  bedroom, 
as  well  as  tight  dressing,  are  among  the  causes  of 
anaemia. 


196  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Hysteria  is  often  combined  with  anaemia.  The  follow- 
ing points  may  lead  you  to  anticipate  a  tendency  to  this 
condition.  It  occurs  mostly  in  girls  who  are  over- 
mobile,  fidgety  with  their  fingers,  often  moving  about 
restlessly  with  their  dress  ;  the  eyes  may  be  restless  and 
not  under  command,  with  the  other  signs  described  as 
common  in  nervous  children.  See  Chapter  IX.  The 
balance  of  the  head,  the  spine,  and  hand  are  usually 
asymmetrical,  and  the  head  may  at  times  be  extended  ; 
there  is  laughing  in  undue  degree,  on  inappropriate  oc- 
casions, and  other  expressions  of  emotion,  the  tendency 
to  which  may  spread  in  the  school  among  such  girls. 
Expression  of  feelings  and  personal  admiration,  both  in 
words  and  gestures,  may  be  too  highly  wrought,  while 
too  much  attention  is  excited  by  their  personal  appear- 
ance and  that  of  others ;  there  is  a  want  of  control  over 
words  and  actions,  with  too  few  indications  of  intellectual 
thought  and  interest. 

The  tendency  to  hysteria  may  be  inherited ;  there  is 
often  a  predisposition  in  weak  and  nervous  girls  which 
can  only  be  met  by  continuous  careful  training  through 
many  years ;  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  these 
children  are  often  imitative,  readily  catching  habits  from 
one  another.  The  brain-condition  corresponding  to 
hysteria  appears  to  consist,  essentially,  in  too  great  a 
governance  of  the  mental  state  by  impressions  of  the 
body  rather  than  by  the  many  things  seen  and  heard. 
The   mental   state   is   too    subjective,  and    the    child's 


ADOLESCENCE  1 97 

thoughts  are  concentrated  on  herself.  Early  detection 
of  this  tendency  is  important,  that  you  may  check  its 
growth  :  avoid  exhaustion  as  from  late  hours  ;  physical 
exercise  and  early  rising  are  to  be  recommended  ;  try 
and  improve  any  irregularities  in  movements  or  faulty 
postures  of  the  body.  As  children  advance  in  years, 
more  work  must  be  done  leading  to  a  moderate  sense  of 
fatigue,  but  signs  of  fatigue  in  the  morning  mean  some- 
thing wrong.  As  the  child  is  growing  up,  educational 
training  should  be  continued  and  should  include  wider 
interests,  teaching  thoughtfulness  for  others  and  at  the 
same  time  the  principle  of  self-control  and  some  obedi- 
ence to  the  laws  of  health,  which  in  part  replace  the 
arbitrary  submission  to  control  looked  for  in  early 
childhood.  If  at  adolescence  there  be  any  depression, 
lassitude,  and  weakness,  this  should  not  be  met  by  the 
use  of  alcohol,  tea,  or  other  stimulants. 


CHAPTER    XI 

The  Care  of  Children  and  Their  Training 

All  knowledge  obtained  as  to  the  physical  and  men- 
V  tal  life  of  children,  and  the  constitution  of  the  individual 
child,  should  have  a  useful  influence  on  the  care  and 
training  of  childhood.  Observation  and  thought  will 
enable  teachers  to  gain  a  wide  experience,  and  arrange 
their  method  in  education  so  as  to  be  the  best  available 
for  building  up  mental  faculty  and  good  habits,  while 
imparting  the  instruction  necessary  for  the  pupils. 

A  good  deal  has  already  been  said  about  types  and 
groups  of  children,  and  conditions  in  the  child  as  you 
see  him  ;  these  considerations  show  that  the  classifica- 
tion and  arrangement  of  children  in  the  schoolroom  is 
worthy  of  attention.  The  pupils  should  be  seated  con- 
veniently for  the  teacher's  observation  in  an  appropriate 
y.  light ;  you  cannot  properly  see  a  child's  face  and  ex- 
pression if  he  stands  with  a  window  behind  him,  and  he 
cannot  properly  see  your  facial  expression  and  action  in 
teaching  articulation  unless  your  face  is  well  lighted  for 
his  view. 

An  age-basis  of  classification  in  the  schoolroom  has 
largely  been  used,  but  it  is  far  from  satisfactory,  ancl 


CARE   ©F  CHILDREN   AND   THEIR   TRAINING        IQ9 

should  be  modified  by  a  reasonable  consideration  of 
the  intelligence,  attainments,  physical  development,  and 
brain-power  of  the  children  ;  if  rigidly  adhered  to,  the 
age-basis  of  classification  may  lead  to  very  unsuitable 
grouping. 
"^  -  Children  exert  much  influence  upon  one  another 
through  imitation  ;  usually  good  results  therefrom,  but 
it  is  not  so  always  ;  the  advantage  of  this  interaction 
among  the  pupils  is  one  reason  why  they  should  be 
encouraged  to  play  in  games,  and  seek  each  other's 
society  out  of  school  hours.  This  concerns  classification 
in  the  schoolroom  ;  examples  may  be  given  where  such 
influence  is  not  for  good.  Excitable  children,  and  those 
described  as  of  the  nervous  type,  are  gregarious,  seeking 
one  another's  society,  and  they  are  mostly  imitative,  in- 
creasing one  another's  fidgetiness  with  a  tendency  to 
inattention  and  too  much  laughter,  unless  they  are 
separated  in  their  school  places.  Children  of  the  same 
family  often  show  similar  tendency  to  the  same  modes 
of  action  and  the  same  faults,  owing  to  similar  inheri- 
tance. Thus,  for  instance,  a  child  of  the  nervous  type, 
one  who  stammers,  or  is  inclined  to  be  hysterical,  should 
not  be  in  contact  with  his  brothers  and  sisters  only,  or 
with  others  of  similar  constitution,  but  is  benefited  by 
mixing  with  other  classes  of  children,  who  in  turn  may 
be  quickened  by  his  action.  Do  not,  if  possible,  place 
imitative  pupils  together  who  are  ill-mannered  or  pro- 
fane ;  it  may  be  by  contact  with  others  they  will  acquire 


200  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

better  manners  and  more  useful  words,  displacing  the 
bad  words  they  hear  elsewhere :  these  children  may 
perhaps  be  better  placed  among  children  rather  dull,  but 
good  and  less  imitative. 

I  believe  that  the  physical  and  mental  health  of  the 
brain  is  promoted  in  all  children  by  training  wisely  con- 
ducted ;  this  in  earlier  years  should  largely  consist  in 
training  movements  such  as  bring  about  the  faculty  of 
coordination  ;  a  brain  whose  faculty  for  coordinated 
movement  is  built  up  under  the  stimulus  of  a  good 
environment,  mental  and  physical,  works  better  in  after 
years  under  the  stress  produced  by  adverse  conditions. 

In  recommending  early  training  for  children  as  a 
physical  means  of  brain-culture,  I  would  insist  on  the 
avoidance  of  fatigue.  The  face  may  begin  to  lose  ex- 
pression, the  lips  and  face  become  a  little  pale  ;  there 
may  be  some  loss  of  tone  or  fulness  under  the  eyes. 
The  tired  child  does  not  balance  the  head  erect  or  the 
hand  straight,  and  irregular  movements  may  be  seen. 
Spontaneity  of  movement,  especially  of  the  fingers,  eyes, 
and  small  parts,  is  the  character  of  healthy  brain-action 
up  to,  say,  seven  years  of  age,  and  often  much  longer. 

Spontaneity  of  action  among  the  brain-centres  is  the 
fundamental  faculty  upon  which  good  action  and  good 
mental  power  are  grafted  ;  this  principle  should  always 
be  remembered  in  brain-culture. 

When  the  child  enters  the  Kindergarten,  a  primary 
object  should  be  not  to  make  him  sit  still,  but  to  train 


CARE  OF   CIIILDRKX   AND  THEIR   TRAINING        201 

eye-movements  ;  get  the  child  to  look  at  an  object  and 
follow  it  by  the  movements  of  his  eyes  ;  never  mind  if 
he  fidgets  the  while,  as  long  as  he  looks  at  what  you 
tell  him  to ;  get  him  to  look  before  you  try  to  make 
him  think. 

Training  the  power  of  attention  and  removing  inat- 
tention and  fidgetiness  are  fundamental  to  all  educa- 
tional training.  When  studying  the  dawn  of  mental 
faculty  in  the  infant,  it  was  shown  that  the  first  indica- 
tions of  what  may  be  called  signs  of  attention,  are  seen 
when  a  sight  or  sound  momentarily  stops  his  sponta- 
neous movements  ;  a  further  stage  is  observed  when 
such  momentary  arrest  of  movement  is  followed  by  a 
new  set  of  movements,  and  gestures  are  controlled 
and  regulated  through  the  senses  (brain-coordination). 
When  at  the  sight  of  a  toy  the  infant's  movements  are 
momentarily  stopped,  and  the  head  and  eyes  turn  to  the 
toy  while  his  fingers  grasp  it  and  convey  it  to  the  other 
hand  or  to  his  mouth,  we  say  the  child's  attention  has 
been  attracted  ;  we  look  upon  this  as  showing  faculty 
for  intelligence  later  on.  Spontaneous  movements  are 
constant  in  infants  and  very  young  children,  the  move- 
ments becoming  less  spontaneous  and  more  under  con- 
trol by  sights  and  sounds  as  growth  and  development 
advance.  Analogous  spontaneous  movements  are  seen 
in  young  animals  and  also  in  all  parts  of  seedling 
plants  ;  much  movement  in  well-nourished  young  things 
is  the  common  law  of  organic  life.     This  spontaneous 


202  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

action  is  what  we  want  to  cultivate,  and  when  it  is 
abundant  there  is  the  material  to  train.  You  must 
have  action  as  the  outcome  of  nutrition,  before  you  can 
train  and  educate.  Training  is  the  process  of  bringing 
under  control,  bringing  the  spontaneity  of  the  young 
into  harmony  with  their  environment.  Doubtless  it  is 
true  that  this  spontaneous  action  must  be  checked  when 
you  need  the  child's  attention  —  that  is  a  reason  why 
you  should  not  require  "the  attention"  for  too  long  a 
period  together.  If  you  have  produced  a  good  result, 
and  no  fatigue,  spontaneous  action  will  quickly  follow 
the  cessation  of  lessons.  In  play-time  encourage  spon- 
taneous movements  and  cultivate  them  in  games. 

In  early  training  we  want  to  make  the  child,  in 
accordance  with  his  age,  impressionable  to  the  control 
of  his  surroundings  and  to  place  him  in  harmony  with 
them  ;  hence  the  usefulness  of  organised  play  and  well- 
arranged  physical  training  of  the  brain.  We  want  to 
cultivate  the  spontaneity  of  the  child's  brain-action,  to 
regulate  but  not  to  stop  it.  Before  trying  altogether, 
to  stop  the  fidgetiness  which  you  observe,  note  if 
mental  action  accompanies  the  movement  and  see  if 
the  child  be  exhausted.  Some  children  are  always 
fidgety  and  inattentive,  others  only  at  times ;  this  may 
be  due  to  physical  causes  acting  temporarily,  such  as 
want  of  food  or  fresh  air.  Commencing  chorea  may  be 
mistaken  for  mere  fidgetiness,  but  is  usually  seen  on 
one  side  of  the  body  more  than  the  other.     There  may 


CARE   OF   CHILDREN   AND  THEIR   TRAINING        203 

be  an  appearance  of  inattention  without  any  real  mental 
fault ;  as  when  short  sight  prevents  a  child  from  seeing 
the  blackboard  or  diagram  or  when  dull  hearing  gives 
him  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  question  he  is  asked. 

We  wish  to  exercise  all  the  powers  of  all  parts  of  the 
brain.  This  may  in  part  be  effected  by  cultivation  of 
precision  of  movements  to  the  word  of  command,  espe- 
cially precision  in  movement  of  small  parts,  such  as 
eyes,  fingers,  etc.  Cultivate  the  faculty  of  imitation  in 
the  pupil  by  making  him  do  as  you  do,  calling  into 
action  the  same  movements  of  parts  as  you  do  yourself. 
Drilling  lessons  have  often  been  looked  upon  only  as 
means  of  "getting  up  the  muscles,"  and  they  have  been 
used  accordingly  by  the  drill-sergeant  with  the  result 
that,  as  in  the  case  of  athletics,  the  maximum  of  good 
has  not  always  been  attained,  and  harm  has  sometimes 
resulted.  Children  may  imitate  the  sergeant  not  only 
as  to  his  exercises,  but  also  in  manner  and  expression. 
A  few  words  as  to  the  physiology  of  physical  training 
may  help  an  understanding  of  the  object.  When  a 
muscle,  duly  supplied  with  good  blood,  is  stimulated  to 
action,  it  grows.  The  nerve-centres  of  the  brain  which 
stimulate  the  muscle  are  affected  at  the  same  time,  and 
tend  to  act  on  future  occasions  with  more  exactness 
and  more  quickly  when  stimulated  by  the  same  word  of 
command.  If  the  object  of  the  physical  exercise  of  the 
class  be  to  drill  the  nerve-centres  or  separate  portions 
of  the  brain,  increasing  thereby  the  quickness  and  pre- 


204  THE   STUDY  OF   CHILDREN 

cision  of  their  action,  then  the  brain  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  free  to  receive  the  word  of  command  ;  you 
must  get  the  attention  of  the  class  and  try  to  perfect 
the  time  of  their  movements  rather  than  to  cause  strong: 
muscular  action.  Leave  the  muscles  free,  have  nothing 
in  the  hands  v^^hen  you  wish  mainly  to  deal  with  the 
brain-centres,  use  no  clubs  or  weights,  and  let  the 
hands  be  open.  Arrange  your  exercises  so  as  to  pro- 
duce movements  in  some  definite  order  ;  at  the  same 
time,  let  them  effect  but  little  mechanical  work.  Let 
the  movements  following  your  word  of  command  be 
such  as  to  exercise  many  groups  of  muscles.  In  the 
limbs,  exercise  movements  of  the  large  parts  and  small 
parts,  and  movements  of  the  separate  fingers  in  flexion 
and  extension,  as  well  as  in  the  lateral  direction. 

Each  group  of  movements  is  due  to  the  energy  of 
a  brain-centre,  and  these  may  be  controlled  to  har- 
monious order  of  action  by  your  exercises.  Some 
very  beautiful  exercises  with  balls  have  been  used, 
which  tend,  not  only  to  regulate  and  quicken  the 
effect  of  sight  upon  movement,  but  also  to  exer- 
cise the  power  of  accommodating  vision  as  the  eye 
follows  the  ball.  I  think  that  this  subject  of  drilling 
the  various  parts  of  the  brain  is  well  worthy  of  more 
serious  attention  than  it  has  received.  Well-managed 
exercises  are  most  useful  for  nervous  and  slow  chil- 
dren, exhaustion  always  being  avoided.  The  child's 
mental    processes    may    be   too    slow   and    limited    in 


CARE   or   CHILDREN    AND    Til  KIR   TRAINING        205 

number  ;  then  try  nut  only  to  C[uicken  them,  but,  also, 
to  quicken  the  capacity  of  the  brain,  for  producing 
all  movements  and  the  interaction  of  the  ear,  the  eye, 
and  the  hand,  as  in  games. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  results  of  good  training,  — 
absence  of  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and  absence  of  mental 
dulness  ;  both  results  depend,  in  part,  upon  the  child- 
material  collected  in  the  school.  The  normally  made 
children  should  not  present  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and 
in  those  of  defective  development  much  may  be  done  to 
remove  them  —  this  is  the  ideal  perfection  of  training. 

Exercises  in  physical  training  may  be  adapted  to  the 
peculiarities,  or  the  faults,  in  the  child,  as  shown  in  his 
movements.  Exercises  with  the  hands  in  imitation  of 
your  movements  and  balance  may  be  used  systemati- 
cally on  a  fixed  plan.  I  referred  to  this  in  speaking  of 
the  examination  of  imitative  power  in  Chapter  VII,,  and 
will  now  go  into  more  detail  as  to  method  of  procedure. 

As  before,  let  A,  represent  the  thumb ;  B,  the  index 
finger  ;  C,  the  middle  finger  ;  D,  the  ring  finger  ;  E,  the 
little  finger. 

Exact  uniform  repetition  may  be  performed  slowly 
or  quickly ;  better  be  slow  and  accurate  than  too  quick. 
Thus  :  — 

A  —  AB  —  AC.     Repeated  three  times  — 

with  one  hand,  then  with  the  other,  then  with  both. 
After  the  exercise  —  return  to  the  straight  balance  for 


206  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

a  moment,  and  then  drop  the  hands  to  rest.  As  the 
object  to  be  attained  is  imitation  through  the  eye 
only,  after  explaining  what  you  want  of  the  pupils, 
be  silent  while  performing  the  exercise  ;  see  that  the 
pupils  fix  their  eyes  on  your  hands,  and  do  not  simply 
work  from  memory.  Be  careful  that  no  extra-move- 
ments, but  only  those  shown,  occur ;  no  wandering 
eyes,  frowning,  side-movements  of  the  head,  shifting 
feet ;  get  the  action  called  for,  only.  During  such  ex- 
ercises I  have  found  the  signs  of  fatigue  occur,  that 
may  depend  upon  the  details  in  your  procedure.  If 
the  class  consists  of  children  seven  to  eight  years 
old,  as  you  stand  before  them  on  the  floor  or  on  a 
platform,  your  arms  held  horizontal  are  as  high  or 
higher  than  the  children's  heads,  and  they,  naturally, 
tend  to  slope  their  arms  up  above  the  horizontal ;  thus 
raising  their  hands  too  high,  and  spending  more  en- 
ergy than  you  intend,  while  the  shoulders  are  prob- 
ably thrown  back  in  this  unnecessary  effort,  with 
bending  of  the  lower  part  of  the  spine  (lordosis).  If 
you  sit  on  a  low  chair,  on  a  level  with  the  children, 
all  this  may  be  prevented. 

When  you  tell  them  to  imitate  you  in  holding  out 
hands  in  front,  and  you  do  it  slowly,  do  not  allow  a 
quicker  movement  than  you  make  ;  some  children 
will  shoot  out  their  hands  with  too  much  energy,  and 
this  is  often  done  with  closed  fists,  or  anything  but 
a    straight    balance    of    the    hands.       Such    action    is 


CARH   OF  CHILDREN   AND   THEIR  TRAINING        20/ 

analogous  to  the  habit  of  some  children  of  shoutin^c, 
when  answering  in  class  ;  both  are  bad  manners,  and 
a  waste  of  strength.  It  is  the  exact  control  by  imi- 
tation that  best  trains  the  brain. 

A  gradually  increasing  series  of  movements  will  be 
more  difficult  for  imitation.     Thus:  — 

A—B—CD E  —  AB  —  AC—AD  —  AE. 

ABC.     ABD.     ABE.     ABCD     ABCDE. 

This  may  be  performed  first  with  the  right  hand, 
then  with  the  left,  finally  with  both  together. 

Many  other  similar  exercises  might  be  arranged, 
the  series  of  movements  becoming  more  complex. 

Eye-movements  need  training  in  all  children  till 
they  have  acquired  the  faculty  of  accurately  and 
steadily  looking  at  objects  and  their  parts.  Exer- 
cises in  eye-movements  may  be  conducted  in  various 
ways  :  tell  the  children  to  look  at  a  small  object  you 
hold  in  your  hand,  and  to  follow  it  with  their  eyes 
without  moving  the  head  ;  they  may  then  look  at  a 
ball  as  it  passes  through  the  air.  Eyes  are  more 
readily  fixed  by  a  bright  object,  as  a  bright  coin,  than 
a  dull  one  ;  gold  has  generally  greater  attraction  than 
silver.  It  is  useful  in  difficult  cases  to  use  a  small 
lamp ;  or  employ  a  small  hand  mirror  and  a  well- 
screened  lamp,  so  as  to  reflect  its  light  on  the  ceiling 
and  wall,  which  young  children  like  to  follow.  Again, 
you  may  name  known  objects  in  the  room,  or  pictures, 


208  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

telling  the  pupils  to  look  at  each,  thus  quickening 
their  movements ;  this  may  be  followed  by  counting 
the  objects  with  their  eyes. 

Training  should  also  be  given  in  estimating  the  weight 
and  size  of  objects  after  the  methods  explained  in  test- 
ing mental  ability.     See  Chapter  VII. 

I  have  thus  far  been  speaking  of  exercises  planned  to 
train  exact  movements  of  small  parts  :  such  exercises 
train  the  power  of  brain  in  its  finer  faculties  of  coordi- 
nation through  the  eyes,  fitting  it  for  the  purely  mental 
functions  of  thinking.  These  exercises  may  be  fatigu- 
ing, in  the  sense  that  though  the  children  may  not  look 
fatigued  as  the  face  is  seen,  after  a  short  time  of  prac- 
tise the  movements  become  less  accurate,  then  stop  the 
exercise  :  this  is  analogous  to  inaccuracy  from  mental 
fatigue.  Exercises  of  fingers  and  eyes  may  be  dropped 
and  the  lesson  concluded  by  movements  of  larger  parts, 
the  shoulders,  elbows,  hand  exercises  with  closed  fists, 
or  allowing  the  fingers  to  be  free  or  to  move  spontane- 
ously and  uncontrolled  in  the  arm  exercises.  I  believe 
it  will  be  found  useful  if  the  class  teacher  himself  will 
devote  five  or  ten  minutes  a  day  to  physical  training  of 
the  brain  as  described,  as  apart  from  the  general  calis- 
thenic  exercises  that  may  be  given  in  the  school. 

I  do  not  say  much  about  drill,  marching,  military  ex- 
ercises, and  the  use  of  the  gymnasium ;  each  mode  of 
training  is  useful  as  well  as  some  form  of  free  exercises 
on  the  lines  of  the  Swedish  system ;  these  have  been 


CARE   OF   CHILDREN    AND   THEIR   TRAINING        2O9 

described  by  those  who  practise  and  teach  them.  All 
such  exercises  improve  the  muscles  and  growth  ;  they 
promote  physical  health,  a  good  gait  and  carriage,  and 
general  activity. 

It  must  be  recognised  that  though  spontaneous  move- 
ments of  the  digits  are  seen  at  birth,  the  larger  muscles 
are  more  easily  brought  under  control  than  the  small 
ones,  at  an  early  age.  With  children  seven  years  old 
and  under  do  not  expect  very  exact  imitation  of  finger 
movements,  but  rather  equal  planting  of  the  feet,  good 
time  in  marching ;  use  exercises  for  the  limbs  with  the 
hands  open,  allowing  spontaneous  movements  of  the 
fingers  to  occur  while  the  larger  muscles  are  controlled 
in  action. 

The  purpose  of  your  physical  training  is  to  regulate 
and  control  the  brain  of  each  child,  and  the  class  as  a 
whole  ;  such  exercises  improve  action,  response  and 
balance  of  the  body,  head,  and  limbs.  A  further  object 
is  to  remove  any  abnormal  nerve-signs  present,  and 
render  the  nerve-system  strongly  knit  together  that  it 
may  bear  strains  well  in  the  future. 

Probably,  by  careful  physical  training  and  exercises 
in  imitation,  you  will  succeed  in  effecting  a  good  carriage 
of  the  body,  and  balance  and  action  in  the  limbs  ;  but 
you  will  find  more  difficulty  in  implanting  a  good  ex- 
pression of  face,  in  imj^roving  the  tone  of  the  muscles  of 
expression  and,  in  particular,  that  around  the  eyes  (O. 
oculi),  as  well  as  in  relaxing  overaction  of  the  muscles, 
p 


2IO  THE  STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

crumpling  of  the  forehead.  This  leads  me  to  speak  of 
dealing  with  the  following  abnormal  nerve-signs  :  Ex- 
pression defective.  Frontals  overacting.  Corrugation. 
O.  oculi  lax  ;  these  are  nerve-faults,  in  fact  bad  habits, 
if  you  will  call  them  so,  but  it  is  generally  useless  to  tell 
the  child  to  look  happy  and  not  to  frown  or  knit  his 
brows. 

These  signs  in  the  forehead  are  overaction  in  place 
of  quietness.  It  may  seem  to  you  curious  that  the  same 
sign,  the  same  muscular  action  in  the  face,  should  under 
different  circumstances  indicate  almost  opposite  con- 
ditions. These  signs  may  be  due  to  ( i)  too  little  mental 
action  or  stimulus;  (2)  they  may  indicate  a  rather  exces- 
sive amount  of  mental  action  or  its  results. 

Case  47.  In  some  institutions  for  boys  where  they 
lead  a  monotonous  life,  and  in  an  asylum  of  imbeciles, 
horizontal  frowning  is  frequent.  In  a  Kindergarten  I 
was  looking  at  a  small  boy  with  a  dull  face  and  frontals 
overacting:  when  I  spoke  to  him  and  asked  him  what 
he  was  going  to  do,  he  seemed  interested,  and  his  face 
became  quiet  but  more  expressive ;  so  also  when  he 
began  work,  making  a  mat  of  coloured  papers,  he  looked 
bright.  Sometimes  just  quietly  looking  at  the  child  as 
he  looks  at  you  is  sufficient  stimulus,  and  frowning  sub- 
sides. In  these  cases  mental  stimulus  does  good  :  on 
the  other  hand,  hard  mental  work  may  cause  these  signs, 
or  at  least  these  signs  may  accompany  mental  effort. 
When  a  class  is  working  sums  on  paper,  or  answering 


CARE   OF   tlllLDRHN    AND    TIIKIR    TRAINING        211 

questions  in  mental  arithmetic,  in  some  boys  the  eye- 
brows are  raised  and  knit  together  strongly,  a  useless 
set  of  extra-movements  accompanying  mental  action. 

Thus,  in  trying  to  remove  these  signs  in  a  child,  ob- 
serve whether  they  occur  mostly  when  he  is  occupied  or 
unoccupied,  what  you  see  will  guide  your  action  :  the 
abnormal  signs  should  be  got  rid  of  if  possible.  Too 
strong  a  light  may  cause  a  child  to  screw  up  his  eyes 
and  frown  :  coarse  repeated  frowning  may  be  seen  in  a 
child  otherwise  normal  when  he  presents  signs  of  fatigue 
after  work. 

If  the  child  has  a  dull  expression,  try  and  make  him 
laugh,  and  laugh  with  him,  not  at  him  ;  make  a  joke 
or  tell  a  short  story  and  set  all  the  class  laughing  for 
a  moment,  to  see  if  he  will  join  in.  Exercises  involv- 
ing an  increasing  number  of  movements  may  cause 
interest,  and  a  little  excitement,  if  there  be  no  fatigue. 
Fulness  and  want  of  tone  under  the  eyes  often  accom- 
pany a  want  of  expression  and  occur  frequently  with 
headaches.  It  is  removed  in  laughter,  and  if  due 
to  a  temporary  cause,  the  fuller  tone  produced  by 
laughing  may  remain  ;  note  the  time  of  day  when  it 
is  seen,  and  if  it  correspond  with  general  languid 
action. 

In  the  classroom  of  the  fifth  standard  boys  in  a 
school  at  afternoon  lessons  I  found  nearly  half  the 
number  of  pupils  looking  full  under  the  eyes.  The 
school  was  not  working  at  high  pressure,  but  the  room 


212  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

was  overcrowded,  hot,  and  close  ;  more  air  and  venti- 
lation were  needed. 

Not  speaking  the  truth,  and  petty  untruthfulness 
of  word  and  action,  must  of  course  be  reproved  and 
checked  in  childhood  :  I  do  not  wish  to  put  down  all 
child  faults  as  mere  physical  weaknesses,  but  it  may  be 
useful  to  see  how  in  some  cases  untruthfulness  is  asso- 
ciated with  conditions  that  maybe  removed  by  training. 

A  boy  slams  the  door  and  then  says  he  didn't ;  or 
you  see  his  foot  kick  his  neighbour,  and  he  denies  it. 
The  door  may  have  slammed  because  his  fingers 
twitched  and  let  it  go  or  pushed  it,  and  his  foot  may 
have  struck  his  neighbour  from  uncontrollable  move- 
ments. Before  you  are  quite  sure  the  action  was  in- 
tentional, look  and  see  that  there  are  no  great  number 
of  spontaneous  movements  occurring.  I  have  known 
children  punished  on  account  of  the  inconvenience 
resulting  from  the  irregular  antics  of  commencing 
chorea.  A  boy  says  he  has  learnt  his  lesson,  but  can- 
not repeat  a  word  of  it,  having  learnt  the  wrong  one, 
but  being  afraid  to  say  so  —  he  may  be  a  child  with 
untrained  eye-movements,  and  did  not  look  accurately 
to  see  the  number  of  the  page  he  should  have  learnt. 
Such  faults  may  not  be  intentional  lies  on  the  child's 
part. 

Case  48.  A  child  at  school  had  a  sick  headache 
while  writing  notes  of  the  lessons  to  be  prepared  at 
home.      Looking  at    the   note-book    next    day,    several 


CARE   OF   CHILDREN   AND   THEIR    rRAINl.\(i        213 

words  were  repeated,  and  others  omitted,  while  the 
whole  was  most  inaccurate,  though  usually  carefully 
entered  ;  the  hand-writini-"  was  also  altered,  shovvin"; 
a  brain  disturbance  as  the  cause  of  forj^etfulness. 

Some  nervous  children  are  very  timid  and  liable  to 
mental  confusion  when  suddenly  addressed,  turning 
pale  or  flushing,  not  ready  with  any  appropriate  reply, 
and  full  of  extra-movements  when  excited.  If  their 
mental  confusion  is  mistaken  for  deceitfulness  or  un- 
truth, confidence  may  be  lost  between  the  teacher 
and  pupil  :  such  children  are  often  keenly  sensitive  to 
an  injustice,  or  what  appears  so  to  them. 

Case  49.  A  boy  living  with  his  friends,  away  from 
his  parents,  attended  a  day-school  and  was  generally 
docile  and  good.  One  day  he  said  at  school  that  he 
had  been  told  to  go  back  early :  this  proved  to  be 
totally  untrue,  and  he  was  punished.  On  another 
occasion,  he  told  the  master  at  school  that  he  had 
a  little  baby  brother  and  had  received  a  letter  saying 
the  baby  was  dead  and  he  was  to  go  and  see  him  ;  he 
showed  the  letter,  which  said  nothing  of  the  kind. 
This  without  further  inquiry  was  apparently  a  gross 
untruth.  That  boy  was  the  son  of  a  mother  not  of 
very  sound  mind  ;  he  had  had  a  few  slight  epileptic 
fits,  and  sometimes  saw  —  apparently  really  thought 
he  saw  and  heard — persons  who  spoke  to  him. 

Illusions  are  not  uncommon  among  children  and 
adults    who    have    no    unsound    mind.      A    child    may 


214  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

over  and  over  again  see  an  ugly  man,  a  dog,  or  a 
wolf ;  such  illusions  may  cause  secret  fear  or  they 
may  not  annoy  him.  Get  the  child  if  you  can  to  tell 
you  of  what  he  sees,  explain  to  him  that  they  are  only 
dreams  ;  do  not  speak  often  of  them,  but  do  not  avoid 
them. 

Fixed  mental  impressions  are  important  elements  in 
mental  life  ;  some  you  may  wish  to  build  up,  others 
you  may  wish  to  remove  ;  the  first  thing  is  to  discern 
their  existence.  A  fixed  and  oft-repeated  facial  ex- 
pression of  mental  anxiety  not  produced  by  the  cir- 
cumstances may  accompany  illusions  ;  blushing  not 
due  to  any  visible  cause  may  result  from  a  fixed 
thought  producing  fear  or  emotion.  Find  out  if  you 
can  the  source  of  the  fixed  thought  that  produced 
it;  it  may  be  some  object  seen  that  caused  fright; 
epilepsy  may  follow  fright  or  the  oft-repeated  imagi- 
nation or  calling  back  to  view  that  dreaded  sight  or 
the  mental  impression  it  produced. 

You  may  sometimes  see  a  child  immovable,  appar- 
ently unimpressed  by  all  around  him,  the  eyes  fixed 
with  a  stare.  You  conclude  he  is  not  thinking,  as 
you  can  get  no  expression  of  thoughts  from  him. 
Such  habits  ought  to  be  checked. 

As  to  the  management  and  training  of  delicate 
children  :  I  wish  in  the  first  place  to  insist  on  their 
need  of  training  and  education,  suited  to  their  con- 
dition   and   their   capacity  ;    it   is   a  mistake,  only  too 


CARE   OF   CHILDREN   AXD   TMEIR   TRAINING        215 

common,  to  leave  weak  children  to  do  nothing  all 
day,  hoping  that  they  will  grow  stronger. 

The  care  of  such  chiUlrcn  concerns  management 
both  at  home  and  in  school. 

A  detailed  study  of  nerve-signs  in  the  child  will 
give  assistance  of  scientific  and  practical  value  to  those 
in  charge  of  delicate  and  nervous  children.  A  card 
indicating  the  abnormal  nerve-signs  in  the  case  (see 
Card,  Nervous  Child,  Chapter  IX.)  will  show  the  teacher 
some  of  the  points  to  be  aimed  at  in  physical  training ; 
further,  a  knowledge  of  the  brain-disorderliness  indi- 
cated by  the  signs  will  give  a  hint  as  to  the  modes  of 
mental  disorderliness  likely  to  be  met  with  in  the 
pupil.  Wandering  eye-movements  lead  to  inaccuracy 
in  transcription  and  sometimes  in  arithmetic  ;  children 
with  twitching  finger  movements  not  easily  controlled 
often  have  spontaneous  thoughts  arising,  which  lead  to 
mental  confusion  and  inaccurate  answers  to  questions, 
also  interfering  with  memory.  The  child  slow  in  all 
movements  and  slouching  is  apt  to  be  dull  in  mental 
action  till  his  attitude  and  response   are  improved. 

The  description  of  the  child  points  out  as  signs  of 
brain-disorderliness  :  "  want  of  facial  expression,"  "  grin- 
ning," "frowning,"  "knitting  of  the  eyebrows,"  the 
"want  of  control  of  movements,"  "protrusion  of  the 
tongue  when  spoken  to,"  "lordosis,"  and  "ill-balanced 
hand-postures."  It  is  the  teacher's  part  to  try  patiently 
to  remove  each  such  abnormal  nerve-sign  and  the  brain- 


2l6  THE    STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

disorderliness  corresponding",  by  presenting  a  good  copy 
for  imitation  in  balance  and  in  action.  Observing  the 
circumstances  under  which  each  of  the  given  signs 
most  frequently  subsides  will  help  you  to  carry  on 
brain-training  concurrently  with  purely  mental  training. 

Untrained  children  often  grow  up  to  adult  age  with- 
out their  eye-movements  having  been  brought  under 
control,  leading  to  habits  of  inaccuracy  in  book  work  : 
such  children  make  very  bad  observers. 

The  mental  training  of  delicate  children  needs  to  be 
carefully  regulated.  It  is  a  mistake  to  leave  delicate 
children  untrained  and  uneducated  ;  such  neglect  often 
leads  to  hysteria  in  adolescence,  weakness,  inability  to 
bear  headaches  without  nerve-prostration  and  other 
inconveniences,  and  disabilities  in  adult  life.  Further,- 
good  training  improves  brain-power,  lessens  brain-wear, 
and  lessens  the  tendency  to  mental  confusion  and 
disorderliness. 

Spontaneous  action  in  the  higher  brain-centres,  both 
for  motor  action  and  for  mental  action,  is  very  com- 
monly found  in  excess  in  nervous  and  delicate  chil- 
dren ;  it  is  then  sometimes  said  that  they  are  preco- 
cious and  should  not  do  lessons  ;  these  young  brains 
are  often  well  made,  and  will  work,  and  may  lead  the 
child  if  left  at  home  with  nothing  to  do  to  fall  into  the 
habit  of  an  amount  of  lonesome  thinking  which  pro- 
duces bad  sleep  and  exhaustion.  Such  children  benefit 
by   a    quiet    regular    school-life    and    association    with 


CARE   OF   ClIILUREN   AND  THEIR   TRAINTXG        217 

Other  pupils,  in  whose  work  and  games  they  must  take 
their  part. 

As  to  the  schoolroom  management  of  a  nervous 
child,  it  is  necessary  to  observe  whether  he  is  more 
easily  and  quietly  controlled  through  his  eye  or  ear ; 
speaking  to  him  may  be  followed  by  some  extra-move- 
ments and  fidgeting,  whereas  signalling  or  indicating 
by  your  gesture  that  he  must  go  on  with  his  work, 
or  not  talk,  may  be  followed  by  quiet  obedience.      .^ 

I  wish  to  encourage  among  teachers  the  study  of 
Nature's  works,  conditions  of  life  as  seen  in  plants  and 
animals  —  the  child  is  a  part  of  Nature's  work.  All 
the  properties  of  the  brain  which  give  it  the  faculty 
of  expressing  the  action  of  mind  are  seen,  in  some 
degree,  in  lower  living  things.  The  study  of  natural 
objects,  and  their  processes  of  growth,  may  suggest 
methods  for  use  in  mental  training.  Suppose  an 
object  lesson  on  botany.  You  want  to  use  some  piece 
of  Nature's  work  placed  before  the  class,  or  better 
still,  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil,  as  a  means  of  educa- 
tion in  observing  and  thinking,  as  a  means  of  teaching 
processes  of  thought  and  extending  the  mental  capa- 
city of  the  pupils,  together  with  the  cultivation  of 
accuracy  of  method  —  this  is  the  desire  of  every  scien- 
tific teacher.  Observing  is  not  necessarily  thinking ; 
observing  is  receiving  new  impressions,  thinking  is  a 
series  of  brain-acts  that  may  follow  such  impressions. 
Observation    may,    or    may    not,    lead    to    thinking;    it 


2l8  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

depends  much  upon  the  teacher  whether  the  object 
lesson  shall  teach  thinking  or  only  observing.  Im- 
pressions produced  by  sight  of  the  specimen  may  be 
followed,  after  it  is  removed,  by  thoughts ;  descrip- 
tions given  by  the  pupil  are  expressions  of  thought, 
and  help  to  enlarge  his  vocabulary.  Suppose  you 
take  some  simple  leaves  not  notched  upon  the  margin, 
and  speak  of  them  with  regard  to  their  shape.  You 
may  describe  them  as  oval,  elliptical,  ovate,  obovate, 
lanceolate,  etc.,  using  a  new  term  for  every  shape,  that 
is,  using  a  number  of  terms,  one  for  every  shape  or 
ratio  in  the  length  of  the  transverse  and  median  axis  ; 
in  place  of  this  you  may  indicate  the  ratio  ;  say,  let 
us  consider  the  form  as  determined  by  the  ratios  of 
the  axes,  and  do  without  a  long  nomenclature. 

(oval)  median  axis     .     .  length  3  )  the  axes  crossing  at  their 

"       transverse  axis     ...     i  j       centres  at  right  angles, 
(elliptical)  median  axis  . 

"  transverse  axis 

(ovate)  median  axis  .     . 

"        transverse  axis   . 

(obovate)  median  axis    . 

"         transverse  axis 


4  )  the  axes  crossing  at  their 
I  )  centres  at  right  angles. 
3  )  the  axes  crossing  at  right 
I  j  angles  \  from  the  base. 
3  "I  the  axes  crossing  at  right 
I  )      angles  |  from  the  base. 


It  is  unnecessary  to  go  further  into  details.  As  to 
these  two  modes  of  describing  form  of  leaves,  the 
second  indicates  what  you  observe  on  looking  at  the 
leaf.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  teaching 
science  and  scientific  teaching.     Let  me  give  another 


CARK   OF   (-IIILUREX    AND   HIKIR    IRAIXIXG        219 

illustration  of  description  of  growth,^  which  may  stimu- 
late more  thought  than  the  simple  one  given  above. 
Look  at  horse-chestnut  buds  in  different  stages  of 
growth.  During  the  winter  months  the  inner  parts  of 
the  bud  are  enclosed  by  scales,  or  modified  leaves  ;  as 
these  scales  grow,  the  cells  on  the  outer  surface  in- 
crease more  rapidly  than  those  on  the  inner  surface, 
and,  as  a  mechanical  result,  these  scales  become  more 
concave  towards  the  centre  of  the  bud  and  envelop 
it,  thus  affording  protection  from  the  weather  and 
attacks  by  insects.  The  young  imperfect  leaves  are 
closely  packed  within,  and  these  also  grow  quickly  on 
their  outer  side,  causing  them  to  press  towards  the 
centre  of  the  bud.  When  spring-time  comes  with 
increased  temperature  and  consequent  increased  nutri- 
tion, changes  occur  in  the  ratios  of  growth  —  the  inner 
surfaces  of  both  bud-scales  and  young  leaves  grow  at 
a  greater  rate  than  the  outer  surfaces,  and  thus  the 
curvatures  are  altered,  the  inner  surfaces  become  con- 
vex, and  the  bud  opens.  How  much  simpler  it  would 
be  to  say  —  the  bud  opens  to  the  spring!  But  the 
detailed  description  teaches  us  to  think  ;  it  shows  that 
we  must  consider  the  individual  parts  of  any  living 
thing  when  we  want  to  know  how  it  acts  ;  the  ratios  of 
action  in  each  part  must  be  observed.     We  see  the  bud 

1  For  further  examples,  see  Author's  work,  "Anatomy  of  Movement  : 
Treatise  on  the  Action  of  Nerve-Centres  and  Modes  of  Growth."  The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 


220  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

does  not  open  itself,  neither  is  it  a  mere  machine, 
as  the  phrase  is  commonly  understood.  Warmth  is  a 
necessary  antecedent  to  the  processes  described  ;  the 
ratios  of  growth  appear  due  to  properties  inherent  in 
the  cells  composing  the  parts. 

Having  referred  to  different  modes  of  giving  descrip- 
tions of  facts  in  Nature,  we  may  use  the  principles  put 
forward  as  a  means  of  analysing  literature.  Let  me  give 
two  examples  from  "  Nathan  the  Wise  "  (Lessing). 

Nathan 

''  The  searching  eye  will  oft  discover  more 
Than  it  desires,  '  tis  as  he  read  my  soul. 
That,  too,  may  chance  to  me.     'Tis  not  alone 
Leonard's  walk,  stature,  but  his  very  voice. 
Leonard  so  wore  his  head,  was  even  wont 
Just  so  to  brush  his  eyebrows  with  his  hand, 
As  if  to  mask  the  lire  that  fills  his  look." 

Here  is  a  description  of  what  Nathan  saw  in  Leonard  ; 
the  terms  used  are  his  stature  and  the  various  move- 
ments seen  —  a  purely  physical  description. 

CONTI 

"  This  head,  this  face,  this  forehead,  these  eyes,  this  nose,  this 
mouth,  this  chin,  this  throat,  this  bosom,  this  figure,  this  whole 
form,  are  from  this  time  forth  my  sole  study  of  feminine  beauty  " 
("  Emilia  Galotti "  —  Lessing) . 

Here  is  an  unspiritual  and  corporeal  description, 
without  reference  to  any  movement  or  sign  of  brain- 
action. 


CARE   OK   CHILDREN   AXD   THEIR   TRAINING        221 

We  will  now  take  for  analysis  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  the  condition  of  Achilles  :  ^ 

"  Achilles  heard,  with  grief  and  rage  oppressed  ; 
His  heart  swell'd  high,  and  laboured  in  his  breast. 
Distracting  thoughts  by  turns  his  bosom  ml'd. 
Now  fir\l  by  wrath,  and  now  by  reason  cool'd." 

This  description  we  should  find  hard  to  analyse  and 
translate  into  terms  denoting  what  can  be  actually 
observed ;  this  illustrates  the  convenience  of  non- 
physical  terms. 

I  have  touched  briefly  upon  many  points,  speaking  of 
things  as  I  see  them.  The  great  labour,  responsibility, 
and  honour  of  educating  children  is  yours.  The  words 
of  the  poet  remind  us  that  : 

*'  Knowledge  comes,  but  wisdom  lingers." 

It  is  not  enough  to  give  children  knowledge  ;  you 
should  be  wise  for  their  sakes,  and  to  become  so  may 
find  it  well  to  study  Nature  in  her  works  and  the  child 
as  a  part  of  Nature. 

^  Pope's  translation  of  the  "Iliad,"  line  251. 


CHAPTER   XII 

Hygiene  and  Health  Management  during  School- 
life 

I  SHALL  speak  of  children  now  from  the  health  point 
of  view,  and  deal  with  methods  of  cultivating  healthy 
conditions  in  the  school  and  in  individual  pupils,  as 
well  as  preventing  illness  and  the  spread  of  disease.  I 
shall  bear  in  mind  that  the  main  object  of  this  work 
is  to  indicate  points  for  your  observation  in  the  chil- 
dren, and  subject  tor  thoughtful  consideration.  Advice 
may  sometimes  be  conveyed  to  parents  through  their 
children,  so  that  while  you  give  attenti^on  to  general 
points  of  health  in  the  school,  you  may  help  individuals 
and  at  the  same  time  spread  knowledge  among  the 
elder  pupils  on  practical  matters  of  health-culture, 
which  no  formal  teaching  would  impart,  and  thus  in- 
spire them  with  the  desire  for  a  healthy  body  with  a 
sound  mind.  I  shall  speak  of  general  points  in  health- 
culture,  and  of  methods  for  early  detecting  and  the 
means  of  preventing  the  spread  of  illness  and  disease. 

A  point  of  first-rate  importance  to  health  is  cleanli- 
ness in  person,  in  dress,  in  the  air  breathed,  and  in 
food.     The  air  of  any  living-room  should  be  constantly 


HYGIENE  AND   HEALTH    MANAGEMENT  223 

changed  :  the  emanations  in  the  breath  are  poisonous  ; 
foul  air  causes  headaches,  drowsiness,  mental  dulness, 
and  diseases.  In  the  schoolroom  the  temperature  in 
winter  should  not  fall  below  50°  F.,  nor  rise  above 
60°  F.  ;  it  is  desirable  that  there  should  be  a  short 
interval  in  the  middle  of  the  morning  lessons,  that  the 
windows  may  be  thrown  open  widely  and  the  air 
thoroughly  changed.  In  any  living  or  sleeping  room 
the  windows  should  be  opened  a  little  at  the  top,  while 
a  small  fire  helps  ventilation  by  causing  a  draft  up  the 
chimney. 

As  a  matter  of  school  hygiene  teachers  should  take 
notice  of  the  early  indications  of  illness  or  disease. 
Perhaps  the  most  practical  means  of  looking  to  these 
points  in  the  children  day  by  day,  is  for  the  class 
teacher  to  receive  the  pupils  as  they  arrive  and  cast 
a  glance  at  each  child  for  a  moment.  If  any  child  is 
thought  to  be  feverish,  the  temperature  should  be  taken 
by  the  thermometer,  and  the  appearance  of  any  rash 
should  be  looked  for  in  the  face  and  on  the  skin  of 
the  chest.  Among  common  chronic  conditions,  that 
may  be  seen,  I  may  mention  discharges  from  the  eyes, 
nose,  and  ears,  diseases  of  the  skin  and  the  scalp  ;  among 
dangerous  diseases  you  may  occasionally  see  the  signs 
of  the  infectious  fevers  and  diphtheria  ;  while  chorea 
or  St.  Vitus's  dance  may  develop  gradually  during  school 
attendance,  growing  worse  day  by  day.  Sometimes 
when  speaking  to  a  girl  of  her  home  life  and    asking 


224  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

after  the  younger  brothers  and  sisters,  you  may  be 
able  to  give  useful  advice. 

I  shall  speak  now  of  food  and  the  feeding  of  chil- 
dren, their  clothing,  and  the  care  of  those  that  are 
delicate.  Some  mistakes  are  made  among  the  poorer 
classes,  more  through  ignorance  and  want  of  helpful 
guidance  than  through  poverty;  cheap  food  is  not 
always  economical,  and  the  use  of  suitable  food  and 
proper  feeding  does  not  always  mean  more  expenditure. 

Milk  should  be  obtained  as  fresh  as  possible  and  not 
kept  longer  than  necessary ;  it  should  be  received  in  a 
freshly  scalded  jug  and  placed  out  of  the  way  of  dust, 
covered  with  muslin  or  a  sheet  of  clean  paper,  to  keep 
out  the  dust :  dust  makes  milk  go  sour,  and  the  germs 
of  disease  grow  rapidly,  increase,  and  multiply  when 
they  fall  into  milk.  In  hot  weather  the  milk  should 
be  scalded,  if  it  has  to  be  kept  through  the  night  ; 
neglect  of  this  in  the  summer  may  cause  much  dis- 
turbance in  children. 

Water  does  no  harm  to  children,  but  large  quantities 
should  not  be  drunk  when  the  child  is  overheated ; 
many  children  suffer  much  from  not  being  able  to 
drink  when  they  want  to.  If  there  is  doubt  as  to 
the  purity  of  the  water,  it  should  be  boiled  and  allowed 
to  cool  before  drinking.  All  children  are  better  with- 
out beer  or  any  alcoholic  drink. 

Bread  should  not  be  used  till  the  second  day  ;  new 
bread  is  both  indigestible  and  wasteful :    broken  bread 


HYGIENE  AND    HEALTH    MANAGEMENT  22$ 

and  bread  crumbs  may  be  used  for  bread  and  milk  or 
in  puddings. 

Fat  food  is  very  desirable  for  children.  With  bread 
they  should  take  butter  or  dripping  or  the  fresh  marrow 
of  bones  ;  bacon,  eggs,  as  well  as  fresh  meat  with  fat, 
form  very  nutritious  food.  Suet  pudding,  made  with 
equal  weights  of  suet,  flour,  and  bread  crumbs,  well 
mixed  and  long  boiled,  is  nutritious  and  digestible. 

Green  vegetables  and  fruit  in  season  are  useful ;  the 
latter  should  not  be  used  when  at  all  decayed,  as  it 
often  causes  illness.  The  value  of  potatoes  as  nour- 
ishing food  is  apt  to  be  overestimated. 

Fresh  fish  and  meat  are  of  course  highly  important, 
but  I  have  no  space  to  speak  of  these  articles  of  diet. 

The  habit  of  taking  meals  regularly  at  fixed  times, 
never  being  late  or  hurried  at  breakfast,  is  equally  im- 
portant to  good  living  with  the  kind  of  food  provided ; 
the  meals  taken  at  home  with  due  order  will  give  a 
better  digestion  of  the  food  and  better  nutrition  of 
the  body  and  brain,  than  snacks  of  bread  and  butter 
or  odds  and  ends  of  food  taken  irregularly. 

The  teacher  —  thinking  of  the  future  pupil  —  may 
upon  occasion  have  the  opportunity  of  advising  par- 
ents as  to  the  feeding  of  an  infant  :  this  matter  is  too 
important  to  pass  over  even  if  the  senior  girls  are  not 
well  instructed  on  such  matters  as  points  of  physiology. 

Many  of  the  troubles  of  early  childhood  in  a  town 
population  result  from  the  development  of  rickets  ;  this 

Q 


226  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

is  a  condition  of  bad  growth  with  bent  legs  and  other 
defects  which  is  largely  due  to  giving  babies  farinaceous 
or  starchy  food  under  seven  months  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
rickets  may  often  be  prevented  and  the  child's  health 
much  improved  by  strict  attention  to  healthy  surround- 
ings and  proper  and  regular  feeding.  At  six  months  old 
a  hand-fed  baby  should  take  two  pints  of  milk  in  the 
twenty-four  hours  diluted  with  one-third  water  or  with 
a  little  lime-water  or  barley-water.  No  artificial  food, 
containing  starchy  matter,  or  biscuits  or  bread  should 
be  given,  at  any  rate  till  after  the  first  teeth  are  cut. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  feeding-bottle 
perfectly  clean  and  sweet ;  and  to  preserve  the  milk 
from  becoming  sour.  You  will  remember  that  the 
young  infant  is  an  embryo  school-child  ;  good  advice 
to  the  mother  or  elder  sister  may  result  in  sending 
better  material  to  your  school  in  the  future. 

Clothing  the  Child. — The  object  to  be  sought  by 
clothing  is  to  keep  a  uniform  layer  of  air  in  contact  with 
the  body  and  the  limbs.  Dress  may  be  well  arranged 
without  necessarily  costing  more  than  garments  ill 
adapted  to  health.  It  is  preferable  to  have  woollen  gar- 
ments next  to  the  body  ;  but  whatever  their  material, 
the  make  is  also  important  ;  garments  should  not  be 
tight  anywhere  at  the  collar  or  at  the  waist ;  in  the 
winter  especially  the  undergarment  should  come  up  to 
the  neck  with  a  low  collar  band,  and  the  sleeves  should 
be  continued  below  the  elbow.     It  is  hardly  necessary 


HYGIENE   AND    HEALTH    MANAGEMENT  22/ 

to  dwell  on  the  fact  that  constriction  of  the  waist  with 
a  view  to  improve  the  figure  is  a  foolish  imprudence.  In 
wet  weather  children  should  if  possible  change  their 
boots  on  entering  the  school. 

Though  it  is  not  possible  to  describe  here  the  means 
of  early  recognition  of  all  diseases  of  children  of  school 
age,  it  may  be  useful  to  say  a  few  words  about  some  of 
those  more  commonly  seen  in  the  school  which  should 
be  early  detected  by  teachers  with  a  view  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  infection,  and  others  which  may  arise  or  be 
observed  during  school  attendance. 

Ophthalmia.  —  Is  sometimes  called  "  blight  in  the 
eyes."  The  membrane  lining  the  eyelids  and  covering 
the  white  portion  of  the  eye  ball  may  become  red  and 
inflamed,  producing  an  unhealthy  thick  yellowish  dis- 
charge, which  is  highly  infectious.  This  form  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  eyes  is  called  ophthalmia,  and  is  one  of  the 
greatest  causes  of  blindness.  Any  child  with  secretion 
coming  from  its  eyes,  should  not  use  a  pocket  handker- 
chief, but  the  eyes  may  be  cleansed  with  portions  of 
cotton  wool,  which  should  then  be  burnt  at  once  to 
destroy  the  infectious  matter.  In  cleansing  the  eyes, 
wet  bits  of  soft  rag  in  warm  water  then  drip  the  water 
on  to  the  eyes,  with  the  lids  separated  by  your  thumb 
and  finger,  so  as  to  wash  away  all  discharges.  The  dis- 
charge is  very  catching;  be  most  careful  that  no  particle 
finds  its  way  to  your  own  eyes  ;  burn  every  bit  of  rag 
after  it  has  been  used,  and  wash  your  hands  in  some  dis- 


228  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

infecting  fluid.  If  the  child  is  kept  in  school,  constant 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  eyes  clean  ;  but  the 
child  should  be  isolated  if  possible  and  placed  under 
medical  care. 

Ulcer  on  the  Front  of  the  Eye  (Cornea).  —  Children 
with  such  ulcers  cannot  face  the  light,  and  keep  their 
eyes  screwed  up  :  often  they  get  the  bad  eye  tied  up 
with  a  handkerchief  to  exclude  the  light.  This  disease 
mostly  occurs  in  children  of  poor  health  and  low  nu- 
trition. An  ulcer  or  depressed  white  spot  may  be  seen 
in  the  front  of  the  eye,  often  at  the  centre  or  sight  of 
the  eye  ;  if  this  does  not  quickly  heal,  it  will  leave  a 
permanent  white  patch,  which  will  ever  after  interfere 
with  the  sight. 

Summer  Diarrhoea  is  very  frequent  and  very  fatal 
among  young  children  in  the  hot  weather.  Such  an  epi- 
demic occurs  in  towns  almost  every  year,  when  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  air  rises  above  63°  F.  The  general 
sanitation  of  the  home  is  the  best  preventive  measure  ; 
the  rooms  should  be  kept  very  clean  and  well  ventilated, 
urge  great  cleanliness  and  daily  bathing  of  children  or 
sponging  with  cold  water.  Children  ought  not  to  be 
allowed  to  eat  either  unripe  or  decomposing  fruit ;  and 
at  this  time  of  the  year,  in  particular,  great  care  should 
be  taken  as  to  keeping  milk  sweet ;  it  should  be  all 
scalded  before  being  used. 

Chicken-pox  begins  with  slight  rise  of  temperature,  and 
on  the  second  day  a  small  number  of  reddish  pimples 


HYGIENE  AND    HEALTH    MANAGEMENT  229 

appear,  some  of  which  soon  become  watery  heads  :  it 
spreads  rapidly  among  children. 

Measles  begin  with  all  the  symptoms  of  a  common 
cold,  running  of  the  eyes  and  nose,  hoarseness  of  voice, 
and  a  rise  of  temperature.  The  eruption  on  the  skin 
appears  about  the  third  day  on  the  face,  neck,  and  arms. 
It  is  extremely  infectious  and  leads  to  many  deaths 
among  children. 

Scarlet  Fever  begins  with  sore  throat  and  a  rise  of 
temperature.  The  red  rash  comes  out  on  the  body,  the 
arms,  and  the  face  on  the  second  day  of  illness.  It  is  very 
infectious  and  dangerous  ;  when  the  fever  is  gone,  the 
skin  is  left  rough,  and  fine  powder  peels  off  from  it, 
which  is  the  source  of  infection.  The  child  who  has 
recovered  from  scarlet  fever  should  not  be  received  at 
school  till  all  peeling  of  the  skin  of  the  hands  has 
ceased  ;  baths  should  be  used  with  disinfectants  during 
convalescence.  If  a  case  of  scarlet  fever  is  found  in 
school,  the  books  and  papers  the  child  has  touched  in 
the  schoolroom  should  be  burnt.  The  infection  is  very 
easily  carried  from  the  home  where  a  child  is  ill  to 
the  school  by  a  child  not  yet  ill. 

Diphtheria.  —  The  child  may  complain  of  sore  throat, 
and  the  voice  be  partially  lost ;  while  in  bad  cases  among 
young  children  an  unpleasant  discharge  may  come  down 
the  nose  and  accumulate  on  the  upper  lip  ;  this  discharge 
is  very  infectious.  The  temperature  is  not  high  in  diph- 
theria, but  the  glands  under  the  jaw  may  enlarge  rapidly. 


230  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Taking  the  Temperature.  —  If  a  child  is  flushed  or  ill, 
complaining  of  pains  or  headaches,  and  looks  like  sick- 
ening for  an  illness,  it  is  useful  that  you  should  take  his 
temperature  with  a  thermometer.  The  natural  tem- 
perature of  the  body  is  uniform,  and  in  health  stands  at 
98^°  F.  Every  school  should  be  provided  with  a  clinical 
thermometer.  Place  the  bulb,  which  contains  the  mer- 
cury, in  the  mouth,  under  the  tongue,  with  the  lips  gently 
closed  around  the  stem,  and  keep  it  there  three  minutes  ; 
when  you  remove  it,  notice  how  high  the  mercury  stands 
in  the  stem  ;  if  it  is  above  100°  F.,  the  child  is  ill  and 
unfit  for  the  schoolroom. 

Some  diseases  are  contagious  :  the  inflammation  of 
ophthalmia  and  diphtheria  produces  secretions  which 
if  they  reach  a  healthy  child  may  reproduce  the  same 
disease  in  him.  The  contagious  material  may  be  said 
to  convey  the  germs  of  the  disease.  So  with  other 
catching  diseases,  as  ringworm  of  the  head.  In  scarlet 
fever  the  dust  from  the  skin  of  the  convalescent  patient 
conveys  the  disease,  so  the  clothes  must  be  disinfected. 
In  measles,  scarlet  fever,  whooping-cough,  the  poison 
may  pass  through  the  air  from  the  patient  to  the  healthy 
children ;  hence  isolation  is  necessary.  Always  disin- 
fect your  hands  after  touching  any  patient  with  a  catch- 
ing disease. 

Simple  disinfection  may  be  required  in  the  school- 
room, as  for  your  hands  after  you  have  touched  the  face 
of  a  child  with  ophthalmia  or  one  believed  to  have  a 


HYGIENE   AND    IIKALTII    MANAGEMENT  23 1 

fever.  For  this  purpose  a  few  drops  of  Condy's  fluid 
(permanganate  of  potash)  just  to  colour  the  water  in  a 
hand-basin,  or  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  i  in  40  parts, 
may  be  used  ;  a  weak  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
(1-3000)  may  be  used  to  wash  over  the  floor  after 
infection. 

Chorea,  or  St.  Vitus's  dance,  is  frequent  during  school 
age,  and  is  more  common  among  girls  than  boys.  This 
occurs  in  some  of  the  bright,  well-made  children  ;  it  is 
characterised  by  weakness  and  a  number  of  awkward 
twitches  and  movements,  while  the  girl  becomes  some- 
what childish  in  manner.  The  onset  is  usually  gradual, 
the  girl  becomes  clumsy,  things  drop  from  her  hands, 
as  the  fingers  open  spontaneously,  the  hand  when  held 
out  assumes  the  nervous  posture,  while  the  fingers 
twitch,  there  may  be  facial  grimaces,  usually  about  the 
mouth,  and  the  eyes  are  much  moved  ;  the  shoulders 
may  often  be  drawn  up  and  down,  and  other  abnormal 
nerve-signs  are  observable.  Though  many  spontaneous 
movements  thus  occur,  they  are  at  first  partially  under 
control,  and  momentary  quietness  may  be  produced  by 
arrcstinfr  the  child's  attention.  These  children  have 
often  suffered  from  rheumatism  or  pains  in  joints  and 
limbs,  with  some  swelling  of  one  knee  after  fatigue  or 
what  are  vaguely  called  "growing  pains";  another 
important  point  is  that  these  children  are  almost  always 
below  their  normal  weight,  often  losing  a  pound  in 
weicrht  or  more  in  a  week. 


232  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Case  50.  A  girl  thirteen  years  of  age  ;  in  Standard  VI.; 
after  a  slight  attack  of  sore  throat,  became  very  irritable  ; 
she  was  unable  to  write  properly  or  hold  her  book  straight 
and  began  to  drop  things  from  her  hands.  She  left 
school,  but  was  not  laid  up.  When  seen  at  the  hospital, 
her  weight  was  much  below  the  normal ;  when  she  held 
out  her  hands,  there  was  much  movement  seen  at  the 
elbows  and  wrists,  while  the  fingers  twitched  ;  imitation 
of  movements  was  fairly  performed,  but  with  many 
extra-movements,  not  controlled  through  her  eyes.  At 
the  end  of  a  month's  treatment  she  had  gained  four 
pounds  in  weight,  and  the  movements  subsided  ;  she 
made  a  good  recovery.  There  was  disease  of  the  heart, 
as  so  often  is  present  in  these  cases,  and  that  remained. 

Epilepsy  is  a  grave  disease ;  you  may  occasionally 
see  an  epileptic  attack,  but  more  often  you  will  be  told 
that  a  child,  who  otherwise  should  be  at  school,  has  had 
a  fit.  An  epileptic  fit  is  a  sudden  seizure  ;  a  momen- 
tary pallor  of  the  face  is  succeeded  by  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, the  patient  falls,  the  hands  are  clenched  ;  the  face 
is  distorted  and  becomes  blue  or  black  with  congestion, 
while  the  convulsion  spreads  to  the  limbs.  After  such 
an  attack  the  child  is  drowsy  and  needs  rest.  In  some 
cases  the  attacks  are  much  less  severe,  only  momentary 
unconsciousness  occurring  without  convulsion  {petit 
mal).  It  is  difficult  to  say  what  should  be  done  for 
such  children  ;  they  need  training  with  education,  and 
do  best  when  fully  occupied  in  the  country  ;    to  leave 


HYGIENE   AND    IIEAI.HI    MANAGEMENT  233 

them    untrained    doing   nothing    through    childhood    is 
very  unwise. 

Rickets  is  so  frequently  seen  among  children  who 
live  in  towns  that  the  indications  of  this  condition 
ought  to  be  known  to  you  ;  the  signs  you  will  see 
are  mostly  in  the  bones,  the  head,  and  in  growth. 
These  cases  are  common  in  the  infant  school,  and 
more  boys  than  girls  are  affected.  They  are  short  for 
their  age  and  remain  stunted,  the  head  is  often  large 
and  ill  shapen,  the  forehead  bulging  or  projecting  on 
either  side  ;  the  legs  may  be  bowed  and  knock-kneed, 
making  the  child  a  bad  walker.  In  a  young  child,  say 
three  or  four  years,  the  ends  of  the  bones  of  the  arms 
just  above  the  wrists  are  usually  large.  The  chest  is 
"  pigeon-breasted,"  thrust  forward  in  the  middle  line,  and 
pressed  in  at  the  sides.  Rickets  is  largely  due  to  feed- 
ing babies  with  bread  and  other  farinaceous  food  in  place 
of  milk  ;  these  children  are  delicate,  they  grow  up  stunted, 
and  about  one-third  of  them  prove  to  be  dull  pupils  : 
rickets  could  probably  be  prevented  in  any  child  by 
attention  to  the  rules  of  health. 

A  well-arranged  schoolhouse  and  classrooms  will 
do  much  towards  the  culture  of  physical  and  mental 
health.  Good  lighting  gives  cheerfulness  and  is 
better  for  sight  and  for  teaching;  when  possible  it 
is  better  that  the  desks  be  arranged  so  that  with  a 
unilateral  light,  the  windows  are  on  the  left  hand  of 
the  children  ;  the  windows  should  be  kept  bright  and 


234 


THE   STUDY   OF  CHILDREN 


the  blinds  drawn  well  up ;  if  windows  are  on  two  sides 
of  the  room,  curtains  may  be  wanted  to  regulate  the 
light. 

The  children  should  in  wet  weather  change  their 
boots  on  entering  school :  the  cloak-room  should  be 
arranged  with  a  space  for  each  child  to  prevent  the 
mixins:  of  the  clothes.  Lavatories  are  often  badly 
constructed;  for  a  large  school  it  is  safer  to  have  no 
wash-basins,  a  stream  of  water  from  a  tap  to  wash  in 
tends  to  prevent  contagion,  and  the  use  of  the  lavatory 
should  be  supervised.  It  is  much  to  be  desired  that 
school  children  should  be  encouraged  to  use  the  public 
swimming  baths,  now  so  frequently  provided  in  towns. 

In  considering  the  health  of  the  children  I  would 
refer  you  to  what  has  been  said  in  former  chapters  as 
to  sight  ;  and  as  to  defective  hearing  in  the  mouth- 
breathers.  Remember  that  children,  small  in  growth, 
small-headed,  or  with  any  defect  in  development  of  the 
body,  are  apt  to  become  delicate  and  dull  mentally,  so 
that  the  views  of  the  parents  of  the  dull  pupil  who 
object  to  long  home  lessons  for  the  child  may  be  reason- 
able ;  this  will  lead  you  to  study  the  child  as  to  both 
his  mental  and  physical  status.  Other  points  concern- 
ing mental  and  physical  health  are  put  forward  in 
the  Propositions  on  Childhood  (Chapter  XIII.). 

The  care  of  health  in  delicate  children  does  not 
necessarily  imply  giving  up  their  training  ;  there  are 
many    young    children,    delicate    for    a    time    without 


HYGIENE   AND    HEALTH    MANAGEMENT  235 

disease,  besides  those  described  as  "  nervous  children." 
I  think  it  would  be  of  service  to  the  teacher,  if  some 
account  of  the  child's  condition  and  physical  and 
brain  defects  were  prepared  by  a  medical  man,  showin<^ 
in  what  points  that  child  may  require  special  care.  In 
the  case  of  all  delicate  children  the  teacher's  own 
examination  should  be  some  guide,  as  is  explained  in 
Chapter  XL,  and  the  points  given  for  the  observation  of 
children  will  aid  in  health  culture. 

When  visiting  a  school  in  East  London  with  one 
of  the  managers,  and  glancing  over  the  children  as 
they  stood  or  worked  in  their  classes,  several  cases 
of  illness  and  disease  were  soon  apparent.  Two  or 
three  had  obvious  defects  of  vision,  capable  of  easy 
correction  by  glasses,  and  one  had  disease  of  his  eyes, 
which  threatened  to  destroy  his  sight  completely  be- 
fore manhood.  This  was  pointed  out  to  the  head- 
master and  a  ticket  for  the  neighbouring  hospital 
was  offered. 

School  hygiene  in  its  mental  aspects  and  the  cul- 
ture of  brain-healthiness  among  children  generally,  as 
well  as  in  certain  groups  subnormal,  is  a  subject 
dealt  with  throughout  this  work,  and  includes  the 
cultivation  of  good  brain-power  and  the  avoidance  of 
an  amount  of  fatigue  leading  to  exhaustion. 

It  can  hardly  be  said  that  at  present  there  exists 
any  established  science  of  mental  hygiene ;  yet  some 
good   materials  are  at   hand   f^r  further  developments 


236  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

of  exact  mental  science  and  the  study  of  child-mind. 
It  seems  to  me  essential  to  a  scientific  mental  hygiene 
of  childhood,  that  we  should  be  better  acquainted  with 
its  types  and  varieties.  Some  of  these  have  been  de- 
scribed, but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  classes 
I  have  described  are  mostly  children  subnormal  m 
some  point,  amounting  to  20  per  cent  of  the  school  chil- 
dren seen  by  me.  We  want  a  mental  hygiene  for 
childhood  at  large,  and  subsections  dealing  with 
certain  groups.  There  may  be  mental  and  motor 
fatigue  ;  the  general  signs  of  fatigue  which  you  may 
observe  have  here  been  described.  Much  stress  has 
been  laid  on  the  avoidance  of  fatigue,  or  at  any  rate 
such  continued  fatigue  as  amounts  to  exhaustion. 
The  laws  of  mental  fatigue  are  not  the  same  as 
those  of  muscular  fatigue.  The  nerve-system  is  in 
part  an  apparatus  for  the  storage  and  distribution  of 
energy  ;  it  is  further  an  apparatus  consisting  of  a 
great  number  of  parts  or  brain-centres,  which  are 
separately  under  control  of  the  senses ;  their  coordi- 
nation and  coacting  represent  the  physical  basis  of 
mental  processes. 

The  subject  of  mental  fatigue  has  been  investi- 
gated by  Dr.  Leo  Burgerstein  of  Vienna,  Dr.  Rivers 
of  Cambridge  University,  and  others.  Dr.  Burger- 
stein observed  with  care  and  accuracy  the  effects  of 
one  hour's  mental  occupation,  as  indicated  by  the 
mental  mistakes  made.     The  principal  tests  used  were 


HYGIENE   AND    HEALTH    MANAGEMENT  237 

in  addition  and  multiplication  of  figures.  He  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  working  power  rises  and 
falls  during  the  time  of  an  ordinary  lesson,  and  that 
it  is  not  well  to  let  lessons  last  longer  than  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour ;  advising  to  interrupt  the  con- 
tinuation of  lessons  by  pauses  of  about  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  so  as  to  have  the  children's  brain  rested, 
the  body  moved,  and  the  school-room  air  changed. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

Propositions  Concerning  Childhood 

Proposition  I.  —  The  main  classes  of  defect  among 
school  children  include  a  larger  proportion  of  boys  than 
girls. 

Evidence  as  to  the  truth  of  this  statement  is  suffi- 
ciently afforded  in  Table  VII.,  which  shows  that  a 
larger  proportion  of  boys  than  girls  present  defect  in 
development,  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and  mental  dul- 
ness  ;  but  the  girls  present  the  largest  proportion  of 
delicate  cases  ;  this  is  in  accordance  with  common 
experience  during  school-life.  Still  it  has  been  shown 
that  it  is  only  the  girls  with  development  defect  that 
are  so  prone  to  be  delicate,  not  all  girls. 

Again  :  although  it  is  here  stated  that  the  propor- 
tion of  girls  in  any  way  below  the  normal  as  indicated 
by  any  main  class  of  defect,  except  delicacy,  is  smaller 
than  among  boys  ;  still,  when  a  girl  has  some  defect, 
it  is  often  of  more  real  importance  than  a  similar 
condition  in  a  boy.     See  Proposition  VI. 

The  general  rule,  that  defectiveness  falls  mostly 
on  the  male  sex,  holds  good  also  in  adult  life,  as  seen 
among  the  classes  with  physical  infirmities,  the  blind, 

238 


PROPOSITIONS   CONCERNING   CHILDHOOD  239 

deaf,  and  mentally  deranged  from  childhood  ;  so  also 
for  criminals  and  paupers  according  to  the  English 
Census  and  other  official  returns. 

I  have  shown  elsewhere  (see  "  Statistical  Journal," 
March,  1896,  London),  that  a  larger  proportion  of 
girls  than  boys  present  two  or  more  classes  of  defect 
associated  in  the  same  case ;  and  their  condition  is 
worse  than  that  of  children  with  one  class  of  defect  only. 
A  child  with  an  ill-shapen  head  or  palate  may  have  no 
other  defect ;  but  if,  in  addition,  he  become  delicate,  he  is 
at  a  disadvantage.  So  a  boy  only  dull,  while  strong  and 
active,  may  get  his  living  ;  but  if  he  is  also  slow  in  action 
and  of  poor  health,  he  is  likely  to  become  dependent. 

Proposition  II.  —  TJie  7nain  classes  of  defect  among 
school  c/iilclroi  are  viucJi  associated  in  the  groups 
of  cases ;  such  associations  vary  zvitli  sex,  age,  and 
environment. 

Evidence  as  to  this  proposition  is  given  in  Table 
VIII.  Developmental  defects  are  much  associated 
in  children  with  abnormal  nerve-signs,  low  nutrition, 
and  mental  dulness.  A  child  presenting  a  develop- 
mental defect  only,  e.g.  a  narrow  palate,  defect  of  ex- 
ternal cars  or  other  features,  may  be  at  no  personal 
disadvantage  ;  it  is  in  conditions  commonly  associated 
therewith  that  harm  arises. 

So  each  class  of  defect  if  unaccompanied  by  any 
other    deficiency   may   not    give    rise   to   any   serious 


240  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

trouble  ;  but  when  defects  are  associated  in  the 
same  case,  they  produce  harm   in  life. 

Taking  all  classes  of  defect  together,  the  associa- 
tion of  two  or  more  classes  of  defect  in  the  same 
case  is  less  commonly  found  in  school  children  at 
eleven  years  and  over,  than  at  seven  years  and  under : 
this  fact  seems  to  indicate  a  favourable  evolution  of 
childhood  during  school  life. 

It  is  the  children  with  developmental  defects  that 
acquire  the  most  association  with  other  classes  of 
defect  as  time  goes  on,  developing  abnormal  nerve- 
signs,  mental  dulness,  and  low  nutrition ;  they  have 
a  low  power  of  resistance  to  an  adverse  environment. 
Probably  their  heredity  is  a  part  of  the  causation  of 
this  condition  ;  but  much  may  be  done  during  school- 
life  to  prevent  evils  arising. 

In  this  class  of  children  there  appears  to  be  dis- 
proportioning  in  bodily  development,  and  associated 
therewith  delicacy  of  body,  and  proneness  to  disor- 
derly brain-action.  As  a  group,  in  an  institution, 
such  children  acquire  more  abnormal  signs  than  in 
the  day  school,  but  grow  fatter. 

It  is  shown  in  Proposition  VII.  that  good  physical 
training  has  some  effect  in  lessening  the  proportion 
of  children  acquiring  associated  defects. 

Co-relation.  —  It  is  in  the  co-relations  of  defects 
that  new  information  is  mostly  to  be  looked  for,  sup- 
plying   evidence    as    to    the    real    significance    of    the 


PROrOSITIONS   CUXCERNIN'C]   CIIILDIIUOD  24  I 

defects  respectively,  and  as  to  their  causation.  Inas- 
much as  it  has  been  shown  by  the  comparison  of 
groups  of  schools  that  the  co-relation  of  the  main 
classes  of  defects  varies  as  to  degree  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  environment,  it  is  advisable  to  determine 
the  percentage  of  co-relations  of  defects  upon  similar 
groups  of  cases  under  different  environment. ^  To 
some  extent  this  has  been  done  by  giving  the  co- 
relations  of  the  main  classes  of  defects  and  individual 
defects,  as  seen  in  children  in  day  schools  and  in 
residential  schools.  The  difference  in  the  numerical 
values  of  these  co-relations,  under  different  environ- 
ments are,  in  some  degree,  a  measure  of  their  effect. 

Proposition  III.  —  Children  with  developmental  defects 
often  present  also  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and  are  delicate 
and  dull. 

Not  only  are  these  developmental  cases  frequently 
pale,  thin,  and  delicate  in  school-life  ;  as  infants  they 
are  very  delicate,  while  from  being  more  common 
among  boys  than  girls  they  add  largely  to  the  male 
infant  mortality  in  the  first  year;  the  cases  that  sur- 
vive form  a  large  proportion  of  the  delicate,  dull,  and 
nervous  children  in  schools,  especially  among  girls. 

Of  the  children  with  developmental  defects  : 

The  proportion  of  these  with  abnormal  nerve-signs 
associated  rises  in  the  age-groups  up  to  ten  years,  be- 
ing higher  among    boys  ;    the  proportion  continues    to 

1  See  published  Report  on  Childhood. 


242  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

rise  slightly  for  girls,  but  falls  with  the  boys  at  eleven 
years  and  over. 

The  proportion  of  those  who  are  pale,  thin,  delicate, 
is  highest  at  seven  years  and  under,  being  twelve  per 
cent  higher  among  girls  than  boys;  this  proportion  falls 
greatly  to  eleven  years,  but  at  all  ages  remains  higher 
with  girls. 

Proposition  IV.  — ■  Children  ivitJi  indications  of  brain- 
disorderlincss,  i.e.  abnorjnal  ncrvc-signs,  are  often  dull 
pupils. 

The  proportion  of  children  with  abnormal  nerve-signs 
who  are  dull  varies  but  little  with  age  and  sex.  Among 
all  children  abnormal  nerve-signs  are  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  mental  dulness. 

These  children  are  seen  from  various  points  of  view. 
Teachers  see  the  pupil's  awkward  habits,  listlessness, 
slouching  gait,  slow  action  and  response,  irregularities 
in  movements  of  the  hands,  wandering  eyes,  or  other 
"abnormal  nerve-signs." 

Take  lOO  boys  and  lOO  girls  with  such  nerve-signs  : 
on  the  basis  of  the  average  obtained —  i8  of  the  boys 
arc  probably  pale,  thin,  delicate  ;  and  40  dull  at  lessons  : 
among  the  girls  29  are  delicate  and  42  dull.  The  status 
of  these  girls  is  worse  than  that  of  the  boys,  and  they 
show  more  general  delicacy.  It  is  well  to  adopt  a 
method  of  physical  training,  adapted  to  remove  abnor- 
mal nerve-signs  and  their  attendant  troubles. 


PROPOSITIONS   CONCERXIXG   CHILDHOOD  243 

The  doctor  in  charge  of  the  child  may  well  hear  in 
mind  tliat  though  a  period  of  treatment  is  necessary  for 
the  removal  of  a  hrain  weakness  or  disorder,  at  the 
same  time  care  should  he  taken  if  possible  that  the 
child  is  so  managed  and  employed  or  trained,  as  to 
prevent  any  unnecessary  amount  of  mental  deteriora- 
tion. Cases  of  chorea,  paralysis,  epilepsy,  if  left  with- 
out any  appropriate  training,  tend  to  grow  up  dull  and 
mentally  feeble. 

In  the  fact  of  the  frequent  association  of  abnormal 
nerve-signs  and  mental  dulness  evidence  is  afforded 
that  such  points  of  ill-balance  and  defectiv^e  action  are 
really  indications  of  brain-disorderliness  and  want  of 
proper  action.  When  good  training  removes  such 
signs,  the  bram  is  brighter  for  mental  action.  Here 
we  see  a  method  of  combating  mental  dulness. 

In  dealing  with  a  child  exceptionally  dull,  one  of  the 
first  practical  points  is  to  indicate  to  the  teacher  the 
nerve-signs  present  and  the  means  of  removing  them  by 
appropriate  management  and  training.  This  is  a  reason 
why  teachers  should  learn  to  observe  and  describe  chil- 
dren, that  they  may  know  what  to  do  for  them. 

Proposition  V.  —  Dull  pupils  arc  often  delicate  zvit/i 
indications  of  brain-disordcrlincss,  i.e.  abnormal  nen>e- 
signs. 

Dull  and  backward  pujnls  are  often  pale,  thin,  deli- 
cate.    This  condition   of   low  nutrition    appears   to   be, 


244  THE  STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

in  part,  a  cause  of  mental  dulness,  and  acts  more 
powerfully  with  girls  than  with  boys  at  all  ages  ;  such 
low  nutrition  among  dull  pupils  is  seen  mostly  in 
those  seven  years  and  under,  being  three  times  as  fre- 
quent among  dull  children  at  that  age,  as  at  eleven 
years  and  over. 

Although  it  is  thus  shown  that  a  state  of  low 
nutrition  is  probably  a  cause  of  mental  dulness,  it 
appears  that  the  brain-disorderliness  indicated  by  ab- 
normal nerve-signs  is  much  more  commonly  a  cause 
of  dulness.  Abnormal  nerve-signs  are  more  frequently 
seen  among  dull  boys  than  dull  girls  at  all  ages  ;  they 
are  less  frequent  among  the  children  seven  years  and 
under  than  above  that  age. 

These  facts  should  be  appreciated  both  by  teachers 
and  parents.  The  teacher  naturally  notes  the  dull 
pupils.  If  we  take  lOO  dull  boys  and  lOO  dull  girls 
of  all  ages  according  to  the  estimate  made:  of  the 
boys  15  are  probably  delicate,  and  of  the  girls  19. 
The  difficulties  and  requirements  of  dull  boys  and 
dull  girls  differ.  Again :  of  the  boys,  57  probably 
present  abnormal  nerve-signs,  and  52  of  the  girls. 
Many  of  the  dull  children  do  not  move  their  eyes  in 
looking  at  objects,  their  response  in  action  is  slow 
and  inexact,  as  well  as  in  speech  :  they  are  lacking 
in  spontaneity,  ill-balanced  in  limbs  and  body,  list- 
less and  slouching. 

Physical  training,  adapted  to  remove  in  detail  each 


PROPOSITIONS   CONCERNING   CHILDHOOD  245 

abnormal  nerve-sii;n,  may  do  much  to  remove  their 
inert  and  disorderly  brain-action  and  render  them 
brighter  mentally.  It  is  clear  from  the  facts  given 
that  dull  pupils  if  accumulated  in  a  class  need  more 
than  an  increased  amount  of  instruction  ;  they  are 
many  of  them  delicate  children,  needing  brain-train- 
ing as  well  as  purely  mental  culture. 

Proposition  VI.  —  Girls  with  developmental  defect  or 
brain-disorderliness  are  more  apt  to  receive  /lann  and 
less  good  from  their  envi)'OJiment  than  boys. 

Contrasting  boys  and  girls,  it  may  be  pointed  out 
that  there  are  certain  differences  which  may  be 
classed  as  : 

(i)  Developmental. 

(2)  Brain-conditions  :  including  mental  dulness  and 
incoordinated  action. 

(3)  Effects  of  the  environment  and  interaction  of 
effects. 

(a)  Physical,    {b)    Mental  and  moral. 

(4)  Effects  of  disease. 

Cases  with  developmental  defect  are  more  frequent 
in  males,  but  under  the  effects  of  their  environment 
the  girls  tend  to  acquire  nerve-disorder,  mental  dul- 
ness, and  low  nutrition  in  larger  proportion  than  the 
boys.     See  Propositions  I.  and  II. 

Imbeciles  are  more  frequent  among  boys,  but  the 
mortality  is  higher  with  imbecile  girls. 


246  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

In  school  the  proportion  of  those  who  are  dull  at 
eleven  years  and  older  is  higher  with  girls.  It  should, 
however,  be  pointed  out  that  the  regularity  of  school 
attendance  of  girls  appears  to  be  always  lower  than 
with  boys. 

These  cases  though  less  frequent  among  girls  may 
lead  to  very  serious  results,  and  if  not  duly  cared 
for,  they  may  be  permanently  injured  in  mental  and 
physical  power  by  inappropriate  education  and  man- 
agement or  by  neglect. 

Cases  with  Brain-disorderliness  indicated  by  Abnor- 
mal Nerve-signs.  —  These  cases  are  more  frequent 
among  boys,  but  the  proportion  of  those  who  are 
mentally  dull  is  slightly  higher  among  girls,  and  16 
per  cent  of  these  girls  are  also  pale,  thin,  delicate, 
as  against  12  per  cent  of  the  boys.  The  outcome  is 
that  these  girls  are  more  likely  to  fall  into  permanent 
ill-health  than  the  boys ;  thus  more  boys  than  girls 
in  school  present  finger-twitching,  but  more  girls  ac- 
quire chorea  and  anaemia. 

Analogous  facts  may  be  quoted :  insanity  may  be 
slightly  more  frequent  among  males  —  the  rate  of 
discharge  from  asylums  (by  death  or  recovery)  is 
higher  among  males,  the  proportion  of  chronic  cases 
is  higher  among  females.  Criminals  of  the  male  sex 
are  far  more  frequent  than  females,  but  "  criminals 
convicted  10  times  and  over"  are  twice  as  frequent 
among  females.     Among  criminal  lunatics,  murder,  as 


PROPOSITIONS   CONCERNING   CHILDHOOD  247 

apart  from  infanticide,  is  much  more  common  amonj^ 
females.  Dull  boys  are  more  frequent  than  dull  girls 
in  school ;  but  the  number  of  illiterate  brides  still 
exceeds  the  number  of  illiterate  bridegrooms,  though 
the  disproportion  is  happily  decreasing  by  the  advance 
of  women. 

It  appears  that  female  brains,  when  "disorderly," 
whether  mentally  dull,  lunatic,  or  criminal,  are  more 
apt  to  remain  disorderly  than  male  brains.  This  shows 
the  importance  of  preventing  such  disorderliness  in 
school-life  ;  and  I  would  again  draw  attention  to  the 
probable  evils  that  result  from  the  irregular  school 
attendance  of  girls. 

Males  and  females  do  not  present  with  similar  fre- 
quency : 

(i)  Constitutional  or  congenital  defects. 

(2)  Diseases  and  acquired  pathological  conditions. 

(3)  Their  reaction  under  ill  effects  of  environment 
differ. 

(4)  The  effects  of  environment,  suitable  to  one  sex, 
are  not  always  equally  suitable  to  the  other. 

It  appears  that  constitutional  congenital  defect,  while 
more  common  in  males,  reacts  less  unfavourably  under 
the  environment  in  them,  than  among  females  ;  in  the 
latter,  the  environment  often  causes  additional  evils, 
while  among  the  population  at  large  we  see  more 
early  death  among  males,  and  the  woman's  expectancy 
of  life  exceeds  that  of  the  man. 


248  THE   STUDY   OF   CHILDREN 

Proposition   VII.  —  TJie  effects  of  good  pJiysical  traiji- 
ing  in  school  are  to  diviinisJi  tlic  jiiDnber  of  cases  zvith 
signs    of  brain-disorderliness    and  the   number  of  dulU 
children. 

Evidence  is  available  from  comparison  of  reports  on 
children  seen  in  schools,  where  good  physical  training 
was  provided,  in  contrast  with  a  large  school,  where 
no  such  training  was  given.  In  the  school  without 
physical  training  the  proportion  of  both  boys  and 
girls  with  abnormal  nerve-signs  was  higher,  and  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  boys  were  reported  by  the 
teachers  as  dull  pupils.  This  cannot  be  attributed  to 
the  Developmental  cases  or  to  Low  Nutrition,  as  their 
proportion  was  lower  than  in  the  other  schools ;  it 
must,  I  think,  be  ascribed  to  the  absence  of  physical 
training.  Again,  in  this  school  the  children  who  had 
some  developmental  defects  showed  a  higher  associa- 
tion with  both  abnormal  nerve-signs  and  mental  dul- 
ness,  than  those  under  a  system  of  good  physical 
training. 

It  may  be  inferred  that  physical  training  tends  to 
improve  the  brain-condition  of  children,  preventing 
or  removing  disorderliness  in  motor  and  in  mental 
action,  and  promotes  healthy  activity  in  both  direc- 
tions ;  this  applies  not  only  to  children  perfectly  well 
made  in  body  but  also  to  those  in  some  slight  degree 
below  normal. 


PROPOSITIONS  CONCERNING  CHILDHOOD 


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250 


THE  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN 


TABLE  VHI 

Based  on  50,000  children  seen  in  day  schools,  mostly  in  or  near  London  (1892-94);  viz.: 
26,287  boys,  23,713  girls.  Showing  the  co-relation  or  association  of  the  main  classes 
of  defect  observed  in  children. 

The  table  is  arranged  in  four  columns,  giving  the  percentages  for  children  in  the  age- 
groups  and  at  all  ages.  The  percentages  are  taken  on  the  number  with  the  main 
class  of  defect. 

Thus:  Of  all  cases  with  development  defect  at  all  ages,  38.4  per  cent  of  the  boys  and 
49.9  per  cent  of  the  girls  were  mentally  dull. 

Of  all  the  dull  children  at  all  ages,  57.6  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  52.6  per  cent  of  the  girls 
also  presented  abnormal  nerve-signs. 


7  Years 
and  under 

Age 
8-10 

Age 
handover 

All  Ages 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

A 

AH  cases  ivith  developmental 
defect 

AB 
AC 
AD 

31-7 
22.7 
36.6 

28.5 
35.0 
40.8 

43-3 
16.0 
41.2 

41.4 
22.1 

46.6 

40.5 

7-5 

37-1 

44.0 
15.0 
Si-i 

38.4 
16.2 

38.4 

36.2 
26.3 
44.9 

Boys,  2308;  girls,  1618 
Per  cent  with  abnormal  nerve-signs 
Per  cent  with  low  nutrition 
Per  cent  with  mental  dulness 

B 

All  cases  with  abnormal  nerve- 
signs 

AB 
BC 
BD 

35-1 

19.6 

43-3 

41.2 
27.4 
47.0 

30.6 

"•3 
42.6 

28.0 
15.2 
41.9 

28.3 
7-S 
39.6 

21.4 
10.2 
40.4 

31.0 
12.3 
41.8 

29. 1 
16.6 
42.6 

Boys,  2853;  girls,  2015 
Per  cent  with  developmental  defect 
Per  cent  with  low  nutrition 
Per  cent  with  mental  dulness 

C 

All  cases  with  low  nutrition 

AC 
BC 
CD 

52-5 
41. 1 
43.6 

66.1 
36.0 
42.0 

51.0 
44.8 

50.4 
51. 1 
40.7 

39-3 
56.4 
37.6 

35-5 
49-9 
35.6 

49.9 
47.1 
43-1 

55-5 
43-5 
40.5 

Boys,  749;  girls,  770 
Per  cent  with  developmental  defect 
Per  cent  with  abnormal  nerve-signs 
Per  cent  with  mental  dulness 

D 

All  dull  children 

AD 
BD 
CD 

45-9 
49.0 
23.5 

55- 1 
44.1 
30.1 

43-3 
63.4 
14.8 

42.6 
56.6 
16.3 

38.6 

59-1 

7-S 

34-9 
56.7 
10.2 

42.8 
57.6 

iS-S 

44-4 
52.6 
19.0 

Boys,  2077;  girls,  1635 
Per  cent  with  developmental  defect 
Per  cent  with  abnormal  nerve-signs 
Per  cent  with  low  nutrition 

INDEX 


Abnormal  children,  i86. 

development  signs,  98. 

nerve-signs,  105. 

signs  classed,  55. 
Absent-minded  children,  3,  213. 
Abstract  and  concrete,  150. 
Accuracy  in  conduct,  189. 

in  mental  action,  128. 

increases  at  adolescence,  191. 

of  movement,  130. 
Action  of  nerve-centre,  39. 

slow,  113,  125. 
Activity  of  brain,  139. 

of  brain  of  child,  39. 
Adolescence,  189. 

care  of,  191,  197. 

control  needed,  196. 

less  spontaneous  movement,  188. 
Advantage  of  school-life,  191,  240. 
Advantages  of  physical  training,  248. 
Advice  to  parents,  222. 

as  to  infants,  226. 
Afferent  nerve-fibres,  36. 
Age  basis  of  classification,  198. 
Age-groups  of  children.  Table  VIII., 
192. 

of  children  compared,  163,  177, 178, 
179. 
Air  breathed,  223. 

breathed  impure,  effects,  142. 
Alcohol,  197,  224. 
American  children,  31. 
Anaemia,  28,  195. 

avoidance  of,  197. 


Analogy  between  movement  and  men- 
tal action,  124. 
Analysis  of  poetry,  220. 
Anatomy  of  expression,  71,  77. 

of  face,  20. 

of  hand,  24. 
Anger,  its  signs  described,  145. 
Antehelix  of  ear,  23. 
Antithesis,  principle  of,  81. 

of  postures,  92. 
Antique  statuary,  76. 
Appearance  of  body,  55. 
Appetite,  158. 

deficient,  158. 

voracious,  158. 
Arched  palate,  103. 
Arithmetic,  3,  8,  122. 
Arm,  bones  of,  24. 

movements,  25. 
Arms,  normal  balance  of,  67. 
Arrest  of  movement  in  infant,  47. 

of  movement  in  attention,  139. 
Arriving  at  school,  223. 
Art,  representations  of,  59. 

types  of  perfection,  76. 
Articulation,  121. 

training,  120. 
Artistic  objects  in  schools,  59. 
Assembling  of  class,  139,  223. 
Association  of  classes  of  defect,  240. 

of  defects,  177. 

of  development  and  nutrition,  180. 

of  movements,  45. 
Asymmetry  of  balance,  91. 


251 


252 


INDEX 


Atmosphere  breathed,  223. 
Attention,  45,  50. 

arrest  of  movement,  140. 

cultivated,  201. 

first  signs  of,  45,  50. 
Attitudes,  see  Postures,  57. 
Augmenting    series    of     movements, 

94. 
Author's  inquiry,  69,  79,  87. 

inquiry  statistical,  239. 

Back  bent,  91,  159. 
Backward  boy,  165. 

children,  163. 

girl,  169. 
Bain,  A.,  on  passion,  148. 
Balance,  general,  of  body,  61,  105. 

of  hand,  80. 

of  head,  66. 
Ball  games  train  eye,  125. 
Beauty  of  form,  •]']. 
Bell,  Sir  Charles,  on   Expression,  71, 

n- 

on  Anger,  148. 
Benefit  of  physical  training,  248. 
Bicuspid  teeth,  17. 
Biology  a  guide  to  child  study,  73. 
Blue  hands,  104. 
Blushing,  22. 
Bodily  development,  98. 
Body,  construction  of,  23. 

growth  of,  26. 

measurement  of,  58. 

measurements,  Table  II.,  31. 

parts  of,  6,  25. 

weight  of,  see  Table  II. 

weight  of  falling,  28,  231. 
Books  of  bad  type,  30. 
Boots  in  school,  234. 
Bosses  on  head,  loi. 
Boston  schools,  31. 
Bowditch,  Dr.,  Tables,  31,  32. 
Boy,  dull  and  backward,  167. 

overworked,  165. 
Boyd,  Dr.,  Tables,  33. 


Boys  and  girls  compared,  239,  241,  245. 

at  adolescence,  189. 
Boys  and  girls,  infant  mortality,  241. 

irregular  development,  26. 
Brain  action,  38. 

action  to  be  cultivated,  15. 

activity,  139. 

and  muscles,  37. 

centres,  37. 

centres,  spontaneous  action  of,  40, 

47- 

condition,  40. 

described,  34. 

diagram  of,  37. 

disorderliness,  15,  192. 

in  sleep,  40. 

nerves,  37. 

of  infant,  48. 

of  infant  weight.  Table  V.,  33. 

power  tested,  122. 

rest,  40,  138. 

signs  of  its  action,  15,  61. 

weight  of,  18;  see  Table  V. 
Bread,  224. 

Breathing  by  mouth,  22, 
British   Medical  Association  Commit- 
tee, Preface. 
Buds  of  chestnut  described,  219. 
Burgerstein,  Professor,  on  mental  fa- 
tigue, 236. 
Business  training,  189. 
Buttercup  flower,  6. 

Cain,  statue  of,  86. 
Calculating,  127. 
Calisthenics,  91,  96. 
Canine  teeth,  17. 
Captious  child,  145. 
Card  of  a  nervous  child,  162. 

for  recording  defects,  99. 
Cases  of  children,  see  List  of. 
Causes  of  fatigue,  142. 
Cell  of  brain,  34. 

galvanic,  35. 
Character  at  adolescence,  189. 


INDEX 


253 


Cliest  described,  23. 

girth,  24. 
Chest  measurements,  see  Table  IV. 

measuring,  26. 
Chicken-pox,  228. 
Child,  the  individual,  70. 

a  work  of  nature,  74. 

faults,  137.    _ 

in  sleep,  40. 

perfect,  156. 

study,  see  Preface,  2. 
Childhood,    propositions    concerning, 
Chapter  XIII.,  238. 

types  of,  158. 

varieties  of,  i. 
Childishness,  142. 
Children,  crippled,  186. 

delicate,  179. 

dull  and  backward,  163. 

dull  and  delicate,  182. 

dull,  not  defective,  163. 

epileptic,  184. 

feebly  gifted  mentally,  172. 

fidgety,  113. 
^mentally  exceptional,  170. 
^  nervous,  158. 

normal  or  average,  155,  156. 

sub-normal  and  delicate,  182. 

troublesome,  8,  53. 

who  need  special  training,  186. 
-  with  nerve-signs,  178. 
Chorea,  or  St.  Vitus's  dance,  231. 
Circular  muscle  of  eyelids,  20. 

law,  107. 
Class  assembling,  139,  223. 

reading,  135. 

teacher    and     physical     exercises, 
208. 

teaching,  124,  135. 
Classes  of  children,  3,  11. 

of  defects,  55,  97. 

of  signs,  55. 

of  special  instruction,  187. 
Classification  of  children  in  school,  3. 

of  childhood,  11, 


Classification  of  defects,  55. 

of  movements,  51,  92. 
Clean  windows  in  school,  233. 
Cleanliness,  222. 
Cleft  palate,  103. 
Clenched  hand,  85. 
Clever  boy,  a  thief,  171. 

girl,  bad  character,  172, 
Clinical  thermometer,  230. 
Cloak-room,  arrangements,  234. 
Clock,  knowledge  of,  130. 
Clothes     preventing     movement,     42, 

43- 
Clothing  the  child,  195,  226. 
Coincident  defects,  240. 
Coins,  counting  of,  8. 
Collar  bone,  24. 
Colour  of  face,  27,  28. 
Common   illnesses   of   children,   227- 

232. 
Comparison,  122. 

of  early  and  late  childhood,  192. 

of  boys  and  girls,  239,  241,  245. 
Complexion,  27. 
Condy's  fluid  disinfectant,  231. 
Confusion,  mental,  3,  213. 

social,  136. 
Consciousness,  signs  of,  11,  137. 
Construction  of  body,  17-23. 
Contagious  illnesses,  229. 
Contagion,  227,  230. 
Contrast  of  boys  and  girls,  239,  241, 

245- 

of  energetic  and  nervous  hand,  92. 

of  older  and  younger  children,  i6j, 
177-179. 

of  passion  and  sleep,  148. 
Control  at  adolescence,  197. 

of  hand,  3,  38. 

through  ear,  138. 

through  eye,  38. 
Convulsive  hand,  85. 
Coilrdinate  action,  133. 
Coordination,  47,  201. 

faulty,  48. 


254 


INDEX 


Co-relation,  240. 

of  defects,  241. 
Corn,  description  of,  73. 
Corrugation,  106. 
Corrugator  muscle,  20. 
Counting  by  iiand  movements,  125. 

of  coins,  10,  128. 

through  eye,  128. 
Cranium,  or  head,  19,  57. 

bossed,  loi. 

defects  of,  98. 

described,  19,  57. 

large,  100. 

small,  17,  100. 
Cricketer,  good,  167. 
Criminal  inheritance,  171. 
Criminals,  246. 
Cripples,  186. 
Cutting  teeth,  17. 

Darwin,  C,  on  expression,  82. 

on  movements  in  plants,  43. 

on  principle  of  antithesis,  82. 
Dawn  of  mental  faculty,  45. 
Deaf  boy,  176. 
Deafness,  causes  of,  22. 

causing  dulness,  177. 

in  mouth  breathers,  22. 
Defect,  bodily,  98. 

of  ear,  loi. 

of  eyes,  28. 

of  eye-movements,  108. 

of  hearing,  30. 

of  heart,  5. 

of  sight,  28. 

of  speech,  114. 
Defective  children,  186. 

cranium,  98. 

development,  98. 

expression,  105. 

palate,  102. 
Defects,  card  recording,  99. 

classified,  55. 

coincident,  72. 
Deformed  children,  186. 


Delayed  expression,  46. 

mental  action,  125. 

response,  113. 
Delicacy,  or  low  nutrition,  78,  179. 
Delicate  children,  179. 

children,  training,  214. 

children,  also  dull,  182. 

girls  and  boys,  239,  241,  245. 
Dentition  periods,  18. 
Description  of  a  child,  57,  155. 

method  of,  74,  150. 

of  a  horse,  75. 

of  natural  object,  74. 

scientific,  73. 

terms  used,  74. 

use  of,  216. 
Desks  in  school,  30,  66. 
Development  and  growth,  27. 
Develojjmental  defects,  98. 

miscellaneous,  104. 
Diagnosis,  75. 
Diameters  of  head,  58. 
Diana,  statue  of,  79. 
Diarrhoea  in  summer,  228. 
Dictation,  136. 
Difficult  children,  8,  53. 
Digits,  fingers  and  thumb,  25. 
Diminishing  movement,  95. 
Diphtherial,  229. 

Discrimination  of  feeble  childr^,  173. 
Diseases  common  among  children  of 
school  age,  227-233. 

preventive  measures,  223. 
Disengaged  hand,  88. 
Disinfection,  230. 
Disorderliness  of  brain,  15. 
Doctor's  method  of  examination,  75, 

243- 
Dress  of  adolescence,  195. 

of  children,  226. 
Drill,  91. 

master,  203. 
Drooping  hand,  84. 

of  head,  67,  147. 

of  thumb,  83. 


INDEX 


255 


Dropping  things,  132,  232. 
Drowsiness,  66. 
Dull  children,  163. 
Dull  and  delicate  children,  182. 
Dull   and   delicate   with    defects    and 
nerve-signs,  182. 

expression.  105. 

forehead,  107. 
Dulness,  mental,  causes  of,  3,  164. 

Ear,  external,  described,  23. 

external,  defects  of,  loi. 

mindedness,  138. 

pleat  or  antehelix,  23. 
Economy  of  brain-power,  95,  149. 
Education,  i. 

Effects  of  physical  training,  248. 
Efferent  nerve-fibres,  36. 
"  Emilia  Galotti,"  Lessing,  220. 
Emotion,  expression  of,  94. 
Energetic  hand  balance,  82. 
Enumerating,  10,  128. 
Epicanthis  of  eyelids,  102. 
Epilepsy,  232. 
Epileptic  fit,  232. 

children,  184. 
Estimating  weight,  128. 
Euclid,  boy  dull  at,  170. 
Eustachian  tube  of  ear,  22. 
Evolution  of  infant,  45. 
Evolution  of  brain,  240. 
Examination  of  a  child,  119. 

as  to  mental  ability.  121. 

of  children  by  author,  5,  69,  79,  87. 
Excessive  movement,  10,  113.  206. 
Exercises,  eye-movements,  207. 

finger  movements,  123,  205,  207. 

in  imitation,  123,  207. 

physical,  91,  123. 

to  remove  faults,  179. 
Exceptional  children,  186. 

mentally,  170. 
Excitable  children.  199. 
Excitement,  mental,  151. 
Exhaustion,  signs  of,  145. 


Expression,  defective,  105. 

defective,   how   to   deal   with,    209, 
211. 

delayed,  46. 

in  face,  61. 

mobile,  77. 

of  anger,  149. 

of  emotion,  94. 

of  joy,  149. 

of  mental  states,  150. 

of  mind  by  movement,  39. 

of  the  abstract,  150. 

passive,  72. 

principle  of  antithesis,  81,  92. 
External  ear,  60,  loi. 

defects  of,  loi. 
Extra-movements,  10,  206. 
Eye,  control  through,  38. 

defects  of,  28. 

diseases  of,  227,  228. 

flat  (hypermetropia),  29. 

focus  of,  28. 

long  (short  sight),  29. 
Eyebrows  knit,  corrugation,  106. 
Eyelids,  102. 
Eye-mindedness,  38. 
Eye-openings,  22,  104. 
Eyesight,  testing,  30. 

how  lost,  227,  228. 

muscles  of,  29,  65. 

short,  29. 
Eyes,  exercises  for,  96,  207. 

eyes  sunken,  19. 

fulness  under  the,  107. 

inflamed,  227. 

movements  of,  64,  108. 

ulcer  of,  228. 

wandering,  109,  215. 

Face,  colour,  27. 
described,  20. 
expression  of,  61. 
expression  wanting,  105. 
free  for  expression,  88, 
muscles  of,  20. 


256 


INDEX 


Face,  normal  type,  59. 

observation  of,  62,  88. 

of  infant,  49. 

of  low  type,  59. 

parts  of,  62. 

small,  104. 

structure  of,  20. 

symmetry,  62. 

types  of,  59. 

zones  of,  62. 
Facts  to  be  described,  70. 
Faculty  of  coordination,  47,  201. 

mental  without  words,  127. 

social,  136,  189. 
Falling  body  weight,  28,  231. 
Family  faults,  115,  199. 
Farinaceous  food,  226,  233. 
Farmer's  descriptions,  73. 
Fat  food,  225. 
Fatigue,  causes  of,  142. 

from  ill  ventilation,  142,  212. 

mental,  experiments  on,  236. 

not  necessarily  unhealthy,  144. 

signs  of,  143. 
Faulty  response,  113,  115. 

eye-movements,  138. 
Features,  coarse,  59,  104. 
description  of,  60. 
individual,  60. 
Feeble  hand  balance,  iii. 
Feebly  gifted  children,  172. 
Feeding  infants,  226. 
Feeling  weights,  128. 
Feelings,  11. 

Feet  unequally  planted,  105,  159. 
Fever,  223,  230. 
scarlet,  229. 
Fidgetiness,  140,  141. 
Fidgety  children,  113. 
Finger  exercises,  123,  205. 

twitches,  no. 
Fits,  see  Epilepsy,  184,  232. 
Fixed  mental  impressions,  214. 
Flat  eyes,  29. 
nose,  103. 


Flexion  of  fingers,  25. 

of  head,  66. 
Flower,  observation  of,  6. 
Flower  food,  226,  233. 
Flushing  of  face,  22. 
Focus  of  eyes,  28. 
Fontanelle  of  head,  17. 
Food,  224. 

for  infants,  226. 
Forehead,  bossed,  loi. 

dull,  107. 

narrow,  10 1. 

puckered,  93,  106. 

ridged,  loi. 
Forgetfulness,  213. 

case,  21. 
Form  and  proportion,  70. 
Free  hand,  89. 
Fright,  hand  in,  85. 
Frontal  bosses,  131. 

muscles  over-acting,  106, 

region,  loi. 

ridge,  loi. 

zone  of  face,  62. 
Frowning,  see  Corrugation,  106. 

how  to  deal  with,  209,  211. 
Fulness  under  eyes,  107. 
Furrows  in  forehead,  107. 

Gait,  125,  205. 

Galvanic  cell,  comparison,  35. 

Games,  125. 

General  balance  defective,  105. 

Girl,  adolescent,  in  school,  197. 

clever  but  bad,  171. 
Girls  and  boys,  239,  241,  245. 

delicate,  179. 

growth  of,  26. 

school  attendance  irregular,  246. 
Glasses,  see  Spectacles,  29. 
Grasping  an  orange,  38. 
Gregarious  children,  7. 
Grinding  teeth,  138. 
Grinning,  112. 
Grouping  of  children,  155, 


INDEX 


257 


Grouping;  of  defects,  55. 
Growth  and  development,  27. 

of  Ijody,  60. 

of  brain,  see  Table  V. 

of  head,  17. 

of  infants,  6,  16. 

rapid,  26. 

small,  103. 

Habits,  93,  242. 

change  at  adolescence,  189. 
Hand,  bones  of,  25. 

convulsive,  85. 

energetic  balance,  82. 

exercises,  123. 

feeble  balance,  in. 

free  for  observation,  89. 

guided  by  eye,  38. 

in  fright,  85. 

in  rest,  84. 

nervous  balance,  80,  no. 

nervous,  contrasted  with  energetic, 
81. 

normal  balance,  67. 

occupied,  88. 

postures,  80. 

straight,  68. 

thumb  drooped,  83. 

types  of  balance,  109. 

weak  balance,  84,  109. 

writing,  130. 
Hands,  blue  and  cold,  104. 

normal  balance,  68. 
Hard  work  at  adolescence,  191,  197. 
Head,  at  school  age,  18. 

balance  of,  66. 

defects  of,  98,  109. 

described,  19,  57. 

infant's,  16. 

large,  100. 

measurements,  17,  58. 

measuring,  57. 

movements,  66. 

postures  of,  65. 

small,  17. 


Headaches,  152. 

causes  of,  151. 

from  bad  ventilation,  142. 

from  want  of  spectacles,  152. 
Health  of  body,  27. 

promoted  by  training,  95,  149. 
Healthy  fatigue,  144. 

spontaneity,  95. 
Hearing,  testing,  30. 
Heart,  defect  of,  5. 
Height,  measuring,  26. 

and  weight,  increase  of,  Table  HI., 
32. 

for  ages,  see  Table  H.,  31. 
High  school,  visit  to,  12. 
Home  and  school,  146. 
Homes,  healthy,  223,  228. 
Horse,  description  of,  73. 
Horse-chestnut  bud  described,  219. 
Hovell,  Dr.  F.  Mark,  on  hearing,  32. 
Humerus,  bone  of  arm,  24. 
Hygiene  in  school-life,  223. 

mental,  a  science,  235. 
Hypermetropia,  flat  eye,  29. 
Hysteria,  196. 

Illiterates  at  marriage,  247. 
Ill-mannered  children,  199. 
Illnesses,  common  to  children,  226. 
Ill-nourished  children,  78. 
Illusions  in  children,  152,  213, 
Imaginative  children,  126. 
Imbeciles,  48. 

moral,  170. 
Imitation,  exercises  in,  122. 

faculty  tested,  123. 

of  teacher,  132. 
Immobile  expression,  72. 
Impressions  made,  49. 

mental  fixed,  214. 
Inaccuracy,  136. 
Inaccurate  reading,  2. 
Inattention,  140,  142. 
Incendiary  child,  171, 
Incisor  teeth,  17. 


258 


INDEX 


Inclination  of  head  balance,  66. 
Increase   of   height    and    weight,  see 

Table  III.,  32. 
Increasing  movement,  94,  95. 
Index  of  brain,  the  face,  61. 

the  hand,  67. 
Individual  child,  70. 

parts,  6. 
Infant,  the,  16. 

brain,  44,  48. 

dawn  of  mental  faculty,  43. 

evolution,  43. 

feeding,  226. 

head,  16. 

head,  small,  17. 

ill-nourished,  78. 

mortality,  241. 

movements  of,  44. 

weight  of,  16. 
Infant  school,  48. 
Infectious  illnesses,  226. 
Inflamed  eyes,  227. 
Inheritance  of  crime,  171. 

of  delicacy,  180. 

of  eye-defects,  29. 

of  headaches,  152. 
Insane  parents,  children  of,  170,  171, 

172. 
Institution  life,  240. 

Intelligence  indicated  by  movement,  6. 
Introspection,  a  mental  habit,  126. 
Iris  of  eye,  19. 
Irregular  balance,  105. 
Irritability  of  brain,  142, 

of  temper,  145. 

Joking,  use  of,  96. 
Joy,  expression  of,  149. 
Judgment,  faculty  of,  122. 

Key,    Professor,    on    laws   of  growth, 

189. 
Kindergarten,  48. 
Kitten,  observation  of,  6. 
Knitting  eyebrows,  corrugation,  106. 


Laboratory,  psychological.  Preface, 
Large  ears,  loi. 

head  or  cranium,  100. 
Lateral  curvature  of  spine,  91. 
Latin,  bright  boy  dull  at,  2. 
Laughing,  uses  of,  95. 
Laughter,  63. 
Lavater,  58,  71. 
Lavatories  in  school,  234. 
Laws  of  health,  197,  222. 

of  mental  fatigue,  236. 
Leaf,  shape  described,  218. 
Leonardo  di  Vinci  on  ugliness,  76. 
Lessing,  analysis  of  poem,  220. 
Letter-writing,  121. 
Light,  in  schoolroom,  233. 

effects  of,  on  plants,  78. 
Lips,  thick,  60,  104. 

not  closed,  mouth  breathing,  22. 
Literature,  analysis  of,  220. 
Lobe  of  ear,  23,  loi. 
Long  eye  (short  sight),  29. 
Looking  at  children,  91. 
Lordosis,  bending  of  back,  ill. 
Low  nutrition,  78,  179. 
Lumps  on  head,  loi. 
Lying,  212. 

Maimed  children,  186. 
Malnutrition  of  children,  78. 

of  plants,  79. 
Management  at  adolescence,  197. 

of  delicate  children,  235. 
Masseter  muscle,  20. 
Meals,  regularity  of,  191,  225. 
Measles,  229. 
Measurement  of  body,  26. 

of  chest,  26. 

of  head,  58. 

of  height,  26. 
Meat,  225. 
Memory,  faults  of,  132. 

faults  of,  causes,  133. 

testing,  121,  135. 
Mental  action  delayed,  125. 


INDEX 


259 


Mental    action    expressed    by    move- 
ment, 39. 

action  spontaneous,  139. 

arithmetic,  122. 

confusion,  3,  213. 

dulness,  163. 

dulness,  causes  of,  3,  164. 

dulness  from  ear-defect,  177. 

dulness  from  eye-defect,  169. 

dulness  and  development  defect,  72. 

dulness  and  nerve-signs,  72,  248. 

excitement,  94,  151. 

faculty  tested  witliout  words,  127. 

faculty,  testing,  122. 

fatigue,  236. 

faults,  326. 

hygiene,  235. 

physiology,  133. 

preoccupation,  140. 

science,  235. 

states,  94,  124,  126. 

stress,  107,  159. 

tests,  120. 

tests  without  words,  128. 

training  of  neivous  children,  215. 

training  of  weak  children,  214. 
Mentally  defective  children,  170,  172. 

exceptional  children,  170,  172,  i86. 

feeble  children,  172. 
Metacarpal  bones  of  hand,  25. 
Metaphysician's  questions,  75. 
Method   of  mental   examination,  120, 

128. 
Method  of  observing  children,  53. 

of  physical  training,  206,  209. 
Microkinesis,  spontaneity  of  infancy,  48. 
Milk  as  food,  224. 

teeth,  17. 
Mind  beyond  observation,  11. 

expressed  by  movements,  39. 
Mirror  used  in  eye-training,  207. 
Mobile  expression,  77. 
Molars,  back  teeth,  18. 
Money,  counting,  8,  128. 
Monotonous  speech,  115,  121. 


Moral  imbeciles,  170. 
Mortality  of  infants,  242. 
Mouth,  22. 

breathing,  22,  114. 

kept  open,  22. 

movements  of,  63. 

small,  60,  104. 
Movement,  an  index  of  brain-action,  10, 

124. 
Movements  classified,  51,  94. 

contracted  through  eye,  38. 

expressing  mental  states,  10,  40. 

of  arms,  25. 

of  eyes,  64. 

of  face,  63. 

of  hands,  25. 

of  head,  66. 

of  infant,  43. 

of  small  parts,  90. 

reflex,  89. 

series  of  increasing,  94. 

series  of  diminishing,  95. 

series  of  uniform,  93. 

spontaneous,  93. 

spontaneous, less  at  adolescence,  188. 

symmetrical,  63. 
Motor  action  of  brain,  38. 
Muscle,  physiology  of,  38,  203. 
Muscles  and  brain,  33. 

corrugation,  20. 

frontal,  20. 

orbicularis  oculi,  20. 

of  eyes,  19,  65. 

of  face,  20. 

of  mastication,  20. 

strengthened  by  drill,  96. 

temporal,  20. 

used  in  drill,  91,  96. 
Muscular  action,  38. 

sense  to  be  trained,  128. 
Myopia  (short  sight) ,  29. 

Narrow  palate,  102. 

Nasal  bones  wide,  103. 

"  Nathan  the  Wise  "  (Lessing),  220. 


26o 


INDEX 


/ 


Natural  object  described,  6,  217. 
Nature's  works,  74. 
Near  sight,  29. 
Nerve  cells,  34. 

centres,  34. 

centres  act  separately,  47. 

currents,  38. 

fibres,  34,  36. 

signs,  10,  15,  61. 

signs  abnormal,  105. 

signs  and   defective    development. 
Table  VIII.,  250. 

signs,  miscellaneous,  112. 

signs  removed  by  training,  248. 

signs  and  mental  dulness,  72. 
Nervous  child  described,  159. 

child  card  of  defects,  i6!2. 

child  schedule,  161. 

children  are  gregarious,  7. 
, children,  training  of,  214. 

hand  balance,  80,  no. 

speaker  described,  140. 
Niobe,  statue,  85. 
Normal  child  described,  57,  155. 

child  schedule,  157. 

face,  59. 

hand  balance,  67. 
Nose,  17. 

and  throat,  22. 

defects  of,  103. 

flat,  103. 
Number,  knowledge  of,  122. 
Nutrition,  low  or  defective,  78,  179. 

signs  of,  28. 

Object  lesson,  6,  217. 
Objective  study,  74. 
Objects  described,  73. 
Observation  of  child,  54. 

means  seeing,  76. 

of  facts,  76. 

of  weight,  128. 

points  to  look  at,  90. 

principles  of,  74. 
Observing  individual  child,  54. 


Openings  for  eyes,  22,  104. 
Ophthalmia,  227, 
Orange,  child  looking  at,  38. 
Orbicularis  oculi  muscle,  20. 

lax,  107. 
Orbits,  or  sockets  of  eyes,  17,  19. 
Over-action  of  frontal  muscles,  106. 

mobile  children,  113. 

smiling,  112. 

ovenvorked  boy,  168. 

Pain,  training  to  bear,  152, 
Palate  arched,  103. 

and  speech,  114. 

cleft,  103. 

defects  of,  102. 

narrow,  102. 

V-shaped,  102. 
Pale  children,  27,  28. 
Palm  of  hand  contracted,  84,  86,  109. 
Palpebral  fissures,  eye-openings,  22. 

defect  of,  104. 
Paper-cutting,  91. 
Paralysed  children,  186. 
Parents,  advice  to,  222,  226. 

aspect  of  a  child,  147,  164. 

and  teachers,  4,  147. 
Parts  of  an  object,  6. 

of  body  moving,  6,  25,  90. 
Passion  described,  148,  149. 
Passive  expression,  72. 
Peevishness,  141. 
Percentage  of  school  children,  i. 
Perfect  child,  156. 
Perfection  in  art,  76. 
Period  of  dentition,  18. 

of  growth,  189. 
Permanent  teeth,  18. 
Petit  mat  (epileptic  fit)  184,  232. 
Physical  exercises  described,  123,  207. 

and  metaphysical,  75. 

exercises,  uses  of,  96. 

facts  observed,  70. 

science,  methods  of,  73,  74,  150. 

training  by  class  teacher,  208. 


INDEX 


261 


Physical  training  at  adolescence,  191. 

training,  results  of,  248. 
Physiognomy,  58,  70. 

and  brain  state,  71,  100. 

and  mental  dulness,  72. 

Lavater,  58. 

Sir  C.  Bell,  71. 
Physiology  of  brain-action,  37. 

of  muscular  growth,  38,  203. 
Pigeon-breasted  (rickets),  233. 
Pigmentation  of  skin,  27. 
Plant  seedling,  43,  78. 
Plants  ill-nourished,  78. 
Pleat  of  ear,  antehelix,  23. 
Poetry,  analysis  of,  220. 
Points  to  look  at  in  child.  Chap.  IV. 

for  observation  faulty,  Chap.  VI. 

of  view  of  doctor,  243. 

of  view  of  parent,  147,  164. 

of  view  of  teacher,  54. 

to  look  for  in  child.  Chap.  VI. 
Police  court  cases,  171. 
Postures,  asymmetrical,  91. 

observation  of,  91. 

of  back,  91. 

of  head,  65. 

of  hand,  80. 

or  balance  in  body,  87. 
Potentiality  of  the  child,  49. 
Pouting,  64. 

Precocious  children,  127,  216. 
Preoccupation,  mental,  140. 
Principle  of  antithesis,  81. 
Principles  of  classifying  movements,  92. 

involved  in  description,  74. 

involved  in  mental  tests,  131,  133. 

involved  in  nerve-signs,  81,  92. 

involved  in  observation,  73. 
Profane  children,  199. 
Profile  view  of  child,  140. 

head,  57. 
Prognosis,  what  will  happen,  75. 
Pronation  movement  of  hand,  25. 
Proportion  of  body,  70. 

of  children  in  population,  1. 


Propositions  on  childhood,  see  Chap. 

XIII. 
Protuberance  of  forehead,  loi. 

of  lips,  60,  64. 
Psychological  laboratory.  Preface. 

research,  236. 
Psychology,  75. 
Puckering  of  forehead,  106. 
Pupils  of  eye,  19. 
Pupil  of  eye  large  in  excitement,  65. 

small  in  sleep,  138. 
Purposes  of  education,  i. 

Radius,  bone  of  arm,  24. 
Rage,  described,  148. 
Rashes  on  skin,  223,  229. 
Ravenous  appetite,  158. 
Reading  aloud,  119,  134. 
Reasoning  faculty,  122. 

faculty  tested,  122. 

faculty  tested  without  words,  129. 
Reciting,  135. 
Reflex  action,  89,  93. 

excess  of,  in  fatigue,  141. 
Regulate  movement  without  stopping 

it,  48. 
Regularity  of  meals,  191,  225. 

of  hours  of  sleep,  197. 

of  school  attendance,  246. 
Relaxation  of  muscle  of  under-eyelid, 
107. 

last  in  laughter,  107. 

sign  of  headache,  153. 

sign  of  fatigue,  143. 
Repeating  the  question,  115,  120. 
Report  on  a  child,  157. 

on  a  school,  11,  14,  73. 

on   100,000  school  children,  5,  69, 
79,  87. 
Respect  demanded  by  children,  189. 
Response  in  action  defective,  113. 
Responsibility  of  teachers,  52,  132. 
Rest  during  daytime,  139. 

hand  balance  in,  84. 

hours  of,  197. 


262 


INDEX 


Retina  of  the  eye,  29. 
Ribs  of  chest,  24. 
Rickets  described,  233. 
Ridge  on  forehead,  loi. 
Rotation  of  head,  66. 

St.  Vitus's  dance,  or  chorea,  231. 
Scarlet  fever,  229. 

Schedule  for  describing  a  child,  56. 
Schedules  filled  in,  see  Cases,  157. 
School  age,  i. 

and  home,  146. 

children,  classification  of,  3. 

children  entering,  223. 

children,  examination  of  100,000,  5, 

69,  79,  87- 

cloak-room,  234. 

desks,  30,  66. 

lavatories,  234. 

Hfe,  191,  240. 

reports,  14,  73. 

training,  240. 

training  at  adolescence,  191. 
Schoolroom  hygiene,  222. 
Schools  in  Sweden,  189. 
Scientific  methods  of  description,  74, 
150. 

observation,  73. 
Scowling,  see  Corrugation,  106. 
Seedling  plant,  growth  of,  43. 

ill-nourished,  78. 

movements  of,  43. 
Seeing  before  thinking,  9. 
Self-consciousness,  196. 
Self-control,  196. 
Self-protection,  121. 
Sense,  muscular,  128. 

of  number,  122. 

of  responsibility,  197. 

social,  121,  136,  189. 

weight,  128. 
Series  of  movements,  94. 

diminishing,  95. 

spreading,  94. 

uniform,  93. 


Sliallow  forehead,  loi. 
Short  children,  103. 
Sight,  defects  of,  28. 
how  lost,  227,  228. 
short  (myopia),  29. 
testing,  30. 
Signs  of  anaemia  at  adolescence,  28, 195. 
classified,  55. 
of  brain-action,  38. 
of  defective  development,  98. 
of  exhaustion,  145. 
of  fatigue,  143. 
of  headaches,  151. 
of  illness,  223. 
of  malnutrition,  78,  179. 
of  mental  action,  39. 
of  nervousness,  159. 
value  of,  53. 
Silly  children,  136. 
Skull  or  cranium,  19,  57. 
Slamming  the  door,  212. 
Sleep,  40,  138,  147. 

hand  balance  in,  84. 
head  balance  in,  66. 
pupil  of  eye  during,  41,  138. 
regular  hours  of,  191. 
teeth  ground  in,  138. 
Sleeping  badly,  138,  158. 

infant,  40. 
Slouching  gait,  105. 
Slow  action,  113. 

mental  action,  124. 
Small  children,  103. 
face,  104. 
head,  17. 
in  growth,  103. 
mouth,  60,  104. 
pupils,  41. 
Smiling,  112. 
Social  children,  7. 
confusion,  136. 
habits,  136,  189. 
knowledge,  121. 
salute,  136. 
sense,  121,  136,  189. 


INDEX 


263 


Spasm  in  stammering,  95,  115. 
Spectacles,  use  of,  29. 
Spectres,  or  illusions,  152. 
Speech,  120. 

and  palate,  114. 

defects  of,  114,  115. 

monotonous,  115,  121. 
Spine,  construction  of,  23. 

curved,  91. 
Spontaneity,  to  be  regulated,  41,  139. 
Spontaneous  brain-action,  41,  47. 

movement,  93,  95. 

movement  and  mental  action,  200. 

movement  at  adolescence,  188. 

movement  in  chorea,  231. 

movement  in  infant,  43,  48. 

movement  not  to  be  stopped,  42,48. 

movement  to  be  controlled,  139. 

thoughts,  127,  139. 
Spreading  disease,  229. 
Spreading  movement,  94,  95. 

movements  in  passion,  149. 

of  laughter  in  school,  160,  196. 
Squinting,  30. 
Stammering,  95,  115. 

boys,  117. 
Still  object,  observing,  7. 
Stimulants  to  be  avoided,  197,  224. 
Stimulation,  42. 
Stimulus  to  brain,  42. 
Stooping,  92. 
Straight  hand  balance,  68. 

hand,  thumb  drooped,  83. 
Summer  diarrhoea,  228. 
Supination,  hand  movement,  25. 
Swedish  drill,  208. 

schools,  189. 
Swimming  bath,  use  of,  234. 
Symmetrical  balance  of  body,  6i. 

movements,  63. 

movements  of  head,  66. 
Symmetry  of  face,  62. 
Sympathetic  nerve,  22. 

Talk  with  a  child,  119,  121. 


Tape-measure  useful,  58. 
Tea,  ill  effects  of  excess,  197. 
Teacher  and  parents,  4,  147. 

exhausted,  12. 

responsibility,  52. 
Teacher's  point  of  view,  54. 
Teeth  groimd,  138. 
Teething,  17. 
Telling  the  time,  130. 
Temper  irritable,  145. 
Temperature  of  body,  see  Thermome- 
ter, 230. 

of  air,  223. 
Temporal  muscle,  20. 
Testing  accuracy  of  movement,  123. 

comparison,  122. 

faculty  without  words,  127. 

hearing,  30. 

judgment  by  weights,  128, 

memory,  121,  132. 

mental  ability,  127. 

muscular  sense,  128. 

sight,  30. 

sight  by  watch  and  clock,  130. 
Tests,  mental,  summary  of,  133. 
Thermometer,  use  of,  230. 
Thinking  about  a  child,  141. 
Thorax,  chest  described,  23. 
Thumb  drooped,  83. 
Thurman,  Dr.,  Table,  33. 
Time,  learning  to  tell  the,  130. 

of  meals,  191,  225. 

of  sleep,  191. 
Tired  teacher,  12. 
Tongue,  protrusion  of  94. 
Tooth-grinding  in  sleep,  158. 
Training  at  adolescence,  191. 

attention,  201. 

brain-action,  139. 

delicate  children,  214. 

eye-movements,  96,  207. 

mental,  135,  155,  201,  220. 

observation,  6,  76. 

physical,  206. 

physical,  results  of,  248. 


264 


INDEX 


Training,  sense  of  weight,  128. 

speech,  120. 

spontaneity,  48,  139. 

to  remove  faults,  179,  209,  211. 
Transcription,  136. 
Troublesome  children,  8,  53. 
Truthfulness,  189.     See  Lying. 
Twitching  fingers,  no. 
Type  of  perfection,  156. 

of  printed  book,  30. 

tests  of  sight,  30. 
Types  of  children,  154. 

of  faces,  59. 

Ulcer  of  eye,  228. 
Ulna,  bone  of  arm,  24. 
Unconscious  movement,  212. 
Uniform  movement,  93. 
Untruthfulness,  212. 
Usefulness    of    descriptions    of    chil- 
dren, 5,  216. 
Using  eyes  badly,  2,  169,  207. 

Value  of  money,  8,  128. 
Varieties  of  children,  i,  11. 
Vaulted  palate,  103. 
Vegetables,  225. 
Ventilation,  223. 


Visit  to  high  school,  12. 

Vocabulary,  120. 

Voice,  monotonous,  115,  121. 

test  of  hearing,  30. 
Volume  of  head,  58. 
Voracious  appetite,  158. 
V-shaped  palate,  102. 

Wandering  eyes,  109,  215. 
Want  of  food,  78,  180. 
Watch,  test  of  hearing,  30, 

test  of  sight,  130. 
Water-drinking,  224. 
Weak  hand  balance,  84. 
Weighing  child,  26. 
Weight,  falling,  28. 

increase  of,  at  age,  189,  190. 

of  children  at  ages,  16. 

sense  of,  128. 
Weights  as  tests,  128. 
Will,  II. 

Windows  of  schoolroom,  233. 
Word-spacing,  121. 
Work,  hard,  at  adolescence,  191. 

Young  and  older  children,  188,  192. 

Zones  of  the  face,  62. 


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